Ruins  of  Ancient   Dionysius  Theatre  Near  Athens. 


•Modern    Theatre 
Construction 


by 
Edward  Bernard  Kinsila 

M 

Architect  and  Theatre  Specialist 


Large  Type  Edition 

Forty-one  Pages  of  Illustration 
and  Copious  Marginal  Reference  Notes 


Copyright  in  the  United  States,  1917 

Copyright  in  Great  Britain,  1917 

Copyright  in  Canada,  1917 

by 

Chalmers  Publishing  Company 
New  York 

All  Rights  Reserved 


AC 

r\b 


PREFACE 

IN  the  preparation  of  this  volume  on  "Modern  Theatre 
Construction''  no  claim  is  made  that  this  is  a  wholly 
original  work.  The  book  is  more  a  compilation  of  the 
best  obtainable  data  on  the  subject,  interspersed  with  original 
ideas.  Nor  has  any  attempt  been  made  to  produce  a  tech- 
nical treatise  on  the  subject.  This  is  rather  a  hand-book  of 
practical  suggestions  intended  primarily  for  the  general 
reader,  which  may  serve  as  a  guide  and  reference  for  prospec- 
tive owners,  managers,  architects  or  builders  in  search  of  re- 
liable information  on  this  type  of  structure. 

The  collection  of  the  necessary  matter  for  proper  presen- 
tation has  entailed  a  considerable  amount  of  painstaking 
labor,  and  the  author  has  often  found  it  desirable  to  adopt 
the  matured  thought  and  in  some  instances  even  the  very 
expression  of  thought  of  competent  writers.  To  these 
authorities  grateful  and  appreciative  thanks  are  extended. 

The  absence  of  any  serious  or  exhaustive  published  treat- 
ment of  this  important  topic  within  the  past  quarter  of  a 
century,  coupled  with  the  present  general  tendency  toward 
architectural  uplift  throughout  this  country,  which  aims  at  a 
simpler  and  truer  form  of  art,  renders  the  occasion  opportune 
for  the  publication  of  such  a  volume  as  this. 

In  illustrating  or  citing  the  work  of  other  architects  the 
writer  disclaims  any  malicious  intention  in  pointing  out  faulty 
features.  He  simply  offers  them  as  examples  of  defective 
construction  to  be  avoided. 

Edward  Bernard  Kinsila. 
April,  191 7. 


PUBLISHERS'  NOTE 

THE  publishers  are  pleased  to  announce  that  they  have 
concluded  arrangements  with  the  author  for  a  con- 
tinuation of  his  interesting  articles  on  theatre  construc- 
tion, more  especially  motion  picture  theatre  building,  in  the 
Moving  Picture  World.  Mr.  Kinsila  will  have  charge  of  the 
Theatre  Construction  Department,  and  will  gladly  answer  in 
its  columns  any  inquiry  addressed  to  him  pertaining  to  this 
publication  or  the  subject  of  theatre  construction. 


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CHAPTER  I 
A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  THEATRE 

SINCE  the  inception  of  theatres  their  mode 
of  construction  has  undergone  a  gradual 
formative  evolution,  invariably  influenced 
by  the  everchanging  uses  for  which  these  edi- 
fices have  been  intended.  The  history  of  the 
theatre  dates  from  time  immemorial.  *The  early 
Greek  theatre  evidently  had  no  prototype.  It  was 
enormous  in  size  and  exposed  to  the  open  air, 
with  no  roof  covering  of  any  kind. 


*Chinese  tradition  claims  the  establishment  of  the  Oriental  theatre 
centuries  before  the  Greeks  came  into  being,  yet  it  is  unlikely  that  the 
latter  race  knew  of  its  existence,  and  much  less  likely  that  they  copied 
its  form.  The  Chinese,  like  the  Greeks,  have  ever  been  disciples  of 
true  art,  and  it  is  not  impossible  that  in  these  days  of  convenient  inter- 
national intercourse  many  of  the  claimed  innovations  in  advanced  dra- 
matic art  may  have  had  their  inception  in  this  remarkable  country,  where' 
an  older  civilization  has  better  borne  the  realization  of  true  art.  For 
centuries  Chinese  plays  have  been  founded  on  noble  legends,  written 
in  poetic  language,  and  produced  with  the  most  artistic  touches  of 
suggestion,  rather  than  mechanical  realism.  They  portray  the  char- 
acters in  the  play  by  their  dress  and  masks,  as  did  the  early  Romans. 
Scenery  and  stage  "properties"  are  generally  regarded  as  accessories, 
although  the  author  recalls  seeing  in  China  in  1890  essential  exterior 
scenes  represented  by  numerous  folding  screens,  an  idea  afterward 
employed  as  an  innovation  by  Gordon  Craig.  The  writer  also  saw  the 
stage  of  a  Chinese  theatre  .flooded  with  actors  pouring  through  the 
auditorium  aisles  and  across  temporary  bridges  from  the  balcony,  a 
highly  effective  feature  supposed  to  have  been  originated  by  Max 
Reinhardt,  and  at  another  Chinese  theatre  was  witnessed  the  revolving 
stage  patented  in  Germany  years  later  by  Herr  Lautenschlager.  The 
elaborate  and  costly  costumes,  too,  of  the  Chinese  players  are  very 
remindful  of  the  brilliant  coloring  of  the  celebrated  Russian  Leon  Bakst. 


10 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Religious 
Character  of 
Early 
Performances. 


In  its  first  form  the  Greek  theatre  consisted  of 
a  circular  dancing-place  or  "orchestra' '  marked 
out  by  a  narrow  margin  of  flat  stones.  This 
space  was  reserved  for  the  use  of  those  partici- 
pating in  the  exhibitions.  The  earliest  perform- 
ances were  developed  from  the  songs  and 
dances  dedicated  to  Dionysius,  the  god  of  wine 
and  vegetation,  and  were  intensely  religious  in 
their  character.  They  were  presented  during  an- 
nual feasts  lasting  several  days,  and  the  whole 
city  kept  holiday.  All  business  was  abandoned, 
and  even  prisoners  were  liberated  to  participate  in 
the  universal  merriment.  Every  day,  from  morn- 
ing until  evening,  was  devoted  without  intermis- 
sion to  the  rendering  of  these  plays,  which  con- 
sisted of  dialogues  between  the  "coryphaeus,"  or 
leader  of  the  chorus,  and  the  other  bacchanalians, 
the  "coryphaeus"  declaiming  his  lines  from  a 
sacrificial  platform.  At  first  this-  platform  was 
located  in  the  center  of  the  orchestra,  alongside 
the  altar.  Later,  after  its  removal,  it  became  the 
Greek  stage.  These  sacred  exhibitions  were  in- 
variably preceded  by  some  divine  sacrifice,  usually 
that  of  a  "trayos"  or  goat.  The  religious  signifi- 
cance of  these  plays,  however,  gradually  dimin- 
ished. The  performances  became  more  frequent, 
and  the  plays  themselves  came  to  be  written 
more  and  more  from  a  purely  human  point  of 
view,  and  to  the  present  day  this  motive  remains 
the  essential  element  of  the  drama. 

Thespis  was  the  first  to  introduce  professional 


A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  THEATRE  11 

actors  in  place  of  the  "coryphaeus."  and  to  this  Jj^tTcton6 
day  actors  are  called  "thespians."  In  the  time  of 
•  Thespis,  the  sacrificial  table  upon  which  he  took 
his  stand,  surrounded  by  the  choristers,  was  re- 
moved to  a  place  immediately  in  front  of  the 
dressing  booth  erected  just  outside  the  orchestra, 
in  which  the  actors  changed  their  dress  and 
masks.  As  the  exigencies  of  the  performances 
demanded,  changes  were  made  in  the  formation 
of  the  orchestra  and  stage  building;  the  stage 
platform  was  widened  and  a  proscenium  built, 
with  a  series  of  dressing  booths  behind  it. 

The  loss  of  one-third  of  the  original  orchestra 
space  to  make  room  for  the  establishment  of  the 
sacrificial  table  had  necessitated  placing  the  fes- 
tival grounds  at  the  foot  of  a  hillside.  Here  the 
audience,  seated  one  above  the  other  like  flights 
of  steps  in  the  space  surrounding  the  orchestra, 
could  have  an  unobstructed  view  of  the  perform- 
ance. These  wooden  seats  or  '  rather  benches 
were  arranged  in  a  semi-circle  with  the  two  ends 
prolonged.  Their  fatal  collapse  later  led  to  their 
being  replaced  by  stone  seats  with  solid  founda- 
tions, a  fact  which  suggests  that  even  at  that 
remote  period  the  safety  of  the  public  was  an 
essential  element  in  the  construction  of  theatres. 
Apparently  the  first  stone  theatre  was  the  an- 
cient theatre  at  Athens,  illustrated  at  the  begin- 
ning of  this  chapter.  It  is  today  one  of  the  most 
interesting  ruins  in  the  world.  This  edifice  was 
probably  erected  near  the  middle  of  the  fourth 


The    First 
Stone  Theatre. 


12        MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

century,  and  undoubtedly  occupied  the  identical 
site  of  the  old  wooden  structure  that  preceded  it. 
In  many  ways  it  embodied  in  more  permanent 
form  the  main  characteristics  of  that  historic 
building,  in  which  the  plays  of  Aeschylus,  Soph- 
ocles and  Euripides  had  been  declaimed. 
An^piayl  The  vast  importance  of  the  religious  plays  en- 
acted in  these  ancient  Greek  theatres  is  indicated 
by  the  enormous  expenditure  of  state  money  re-* 
quired  for  their  production.  These  sums  were 
raised  by  obligatory  duties  levied  upon  .  the 
wealthy,  like  the  income  tax  of  the  present  day. 
Plutarch  tells  us  that  the  expense  of  presenting 
a  single  play  of  Sophocles  at  Athens  involved  an 
extravagant  sum  equivalent  to  half  a  million  dol- 
lars in  American  currency. 

THE    ROMAN    THEATRE. 

Centuries  later,  in  the  Roman  era,  the  theatre 
came  to  be  inclosed  within  boundary  walls,  but 
still  without  a  roof.  It  had  changed  its  form, 
and  was  now  built  more  ornately  and  upon  level 
ground.  The  exhibitions  had  become  more  sec- 
ular, the  altar  had  been  removed,  and  all  per- 
formances, whether  choral,  musical  or  dramatic, 
were  transferred  from  the  orchestra  to  the  stage. 
The  orchestra,  considerably  reduced  in  size,  was 
given  up  to  seats  for  the  spectators.  The  first 
recorded  stone  theatre  in  Rome  was  built  by  Pom- 
pey  in  55  B.  C.  It  consisted  of  three  floors  sepa- 
rated by  ample  corridors,  and  each  corridor  was 


A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  THEATRE  13 

approached  by  broad  staircases  that  enabled  pa- 
trons to  reach  their  respective  places.  Although 
the  Roman  theatre  was  quite  open  at  the  top,  a 
canvas  sheet  was  later  stretched  across  the  audi- 
torium, worked  by  means  of  pulley  cords,  to  pro- 
tect the  auditors  from  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

In  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era  the  Sfj&SSt* 
Roman  theatre  developed  mime  plays,  a  species  of  Theatres* 
true  pantomime  that  was  secular  in  its  character. 
These  unspoken  plays  and  the  gladiatorial  games 
of  that  day  were  rivals  for  the  public  favor,  ami 
the  Church  was  not  slow  in  denouncing  this  so- 
called  prostitution  of  the  religious  stage.  From 
that  time  began  the  decadence  of  the  ancient  thea- 
tre, and  it  lay  dormant  until  its  revival  in  the 
mediaeval  period,  centuries  later. 

Just  as  the  ancient  theatre,  originally  designed 
for  joyous  display  through  the  religious  enthus- 
iasm of  a  devout  people,  and  later  assuming  a 
more  secular  aspect  that  necessitated  correspond- 
ing changes  in  architecture,  so,  too,  has  the  thea- 
tre of  a  later  civilization  continued  to  advance 
with  like  physical  changes  to  accommodate  its 
new  uses.  It  is  not  necessary  to  trace  the  history 
of  the  theatre  through  its  various  vicissitudes  to 
the  period  of  the  housed-in  theatre  of  mediaeval 
Europe,  and  thence  onward,  to  demonstrate  that 
the  seating  arrangement  of  an  almost  prehistoric 
generation  dictated  the  ultimate  conformation  of 
the  classic  hemicycle  now  in  use. 


14  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

THEATRES  OF  MIDDLE  AGES. 

The  early  days  of  mediaeval  Europe  witnessed 
the  introduction  of  liturgical  drama  and  miracle 
plays,  founded  on  events  chronicled  in  the  New 
and  Old  Testaments.  In  England,  as  in  France, 
the  church  became  the  cradle  of  the  drama.  Then 
followed  mimed  mystery  plays  that  later  devel- 
oped into  secular  pantomime.  Following  the  ex- 
amples set  by  the  early  Romans,  these  religious 
pantomimes  degenerated  into  licentious  spectacles, 
and  historical  comedies  and  classic  drama  were 
introduced  to  offset  them. 
RAaJT^?t/ies         Following  the  days  of  the  ancient  theatre  and 

of  the  Middle  &  J 

Ages.  Up  f-0  t^  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century 

all  plays  had  been  enacted  by  the  elite  of  society 
in  public  halls  or  colleges.  In  that  period  real 
housed-in  theatres  as  we  now  know  them  made 
their  appearance  in  France.  The  most  noted  one 
of  these  was  the  Hotel  de  Bourgogne,  a  vast,  low- 
ceilinged  edifice  that  accommodated  about  two 
thousand  persons.  The  stage  of  this  theatre  was 
of  extraordinary  depth,  and  it  was  divided  in  the 
middle  by  draperies  when  the  scenes  did  not  re- 
quire its  full  depth.  Rows  of  candles,  that  re- 
quired constant  snuffing,  were  placed  along  the 
front  of  the  stage  to  aid  in  its  illumination. 
Above  the  stage  itself  was  suspended  a  chande- 
lier with  four  branches,  each  containing  a  long 
yellow  candle.  There  were  in  the  auditorium 
two  superposed  rows  of  boxes,  each  box  fitted 
with  wooden  benches  to  hold  some  dozen  spec- 


A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  THEATRE  IS 

tators  plunged  in  semi-obscurity.  The  pit,  in 
which  the  audience  stood  or  moved  about  at  will, 
was  no  better  lighted  than  the  boxes. 

About  the  time  that  the  Hotel  de  Bourgogne  The  Dawn  of 

°    °  Good  Drama 

and  other  real  theatres  were  created  in  France  in  England, 
there  appeared  as  an  actor  and  playwright  on  the 
English  stage  that  marvel  of  genius  William 
Shakespeare,  who  later  became  the  manager  of 
the  famous  Globe  theatre  in  London.  The  Globe 
theatre  was  merely  a  summer  theatre,  open  for 
three  or  four  months  in  the  year.  Judging  from 
the  vivid  descriptions  of  the  theatres  of  that  peri- 
od the  manners  of  theatregoers  were  extremely 
unconventional.  Although  an  active  interest  in 
the  drama  pervaded  all  classes,  respectable  young 
girls  were  not  allowed  to  attend  the  theatre  in 
those  days,  the  audience  in  the  better  parts  of  the 
house  being  mainly  composed  of  the  gay  set.  The 
women  in  the  boxes  wore  velvet  masks  to  hide 
their  faces  and  smoked  pipes  during  the  perform- 
ance. The  few  seats  in  the  theatre  were  stools, 
and  people  of  quality  brought  their  own  stools. 
There  stood  in  the  Globe  theatre  of  which  Shake- 
speare was  manager  an  immense  stoup  of  English 
ale,  from  which  every  man  could  quench  his  thirst 
at  will. 

The   establishment   of   permanent    theatres   in  Early  English 

1  Theatres. 

England  dates  from  the  latter  part  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  This  period  marked  the  beginning 
of  the  Elizabethan  drama.  Female  characters  of 
the  matronly  type  of  Lady  Macbeth  were  imper- 


16 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Troubles    of 
the  Early 
European 
Theatres. 


sonated  by  men,  and  for  the  more  delicate,  maid- 
enly parts,  such  as  Juliet  and  Imogen,  recourse 
was  had  to  the  services  of  young  men,  who  were 
remunerated  in  proportion  to  their  beauty  and  dis- 
tinction. 

The  first  of  these  permanent  theatres  were 
erected  in  the  fields  outside  of  London,  but  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Lord  Mayor  and  City 
Council.  Among  these  were  "The  Theatre,"  "The 
Curtain"  and  "The  Blackfriars  Theatre."  They 
were  inclosed  within  side  walls,  with  the  center 
space  open  to  the  air,  while  against  the  side  and 
rear  walls  were  arranged  tiers  of  benches  as  in 
the  ancient  theatres.  The  stage  was  raised  about 
four  feet  from  the  floor,  and  was  separated  from 
the  pit  by  a  balustrade.  A  big  open  room  above 
the.  stage  was  used  by  the  actors  to  dress  in,  and 
a  square  roof  protected  this  and  the  stage  from 
the  rain.  Another  narrow,  circular  roof  covered 
the  tiers  of  seats  against  the  walls.  A  writer  of 
that  period  says,  in  describing  these  theatres,  that 
"seen  from  a  distance  they  looked  like  enormous 
towers,  outtopping  the  trees  and  houses  that  sur- 
rounded them." 

During  the  seventeenth  century  the  theatre  ex- 
perienced troublesome  times  in  France  through 
political  intrigue.  The  celebrated  Comedie  Fran- 
chise and  the  equally  famed  Palais  Royal  were 
several  times  established  and  suppressed  as  na- 
tional theatres  during  that  period.  In  the  year 
1660  there  were  but  three  great  public  theatres  in 


A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  THEATRE  17 

all  Paris :  the  Hotel  de  Bourgogne,  the  Theatre  du 
Marias  and  the  Palais  Royal,  although  theatres 
were  held  in  high  popular  favor.  In  England, 
too,  the  same  experience  befell  the  theatre  because 
of  civil  wars.  During  this  period  actresses  for  the 
first  time  were  accepted  with  favor  upon  the  Eng- 
lish stage.  Painted  scenery  was  introduced  and 
oil  lamps  were  substituted  for  candles.  Up  to  that 
time  scenery  and  "properties"  had  not  been  em- 
ployed on  the  stage,  such  accessories  being  de- 
scribed in  the  lines  of  the  play,  and  uttered  by 
the  stage  declaimer. 

THEATRES    OF    MODERN    TIMES. 

The  early  theatres  of  a  later  period  catered 
wholly  to  the  cultured  classes  without  regard  to 
the  masses.  These  were  Court  theatres,  main- 
tained at  the  expense  of  the  various  sovereigns, 
and  National  and  Municipal  theatres,  supported 
by  the  different  governments.  There  were  also 
subscription  theatres  whose  cost  was  defrayed  by 
private  subscription  instead  of  from  the  public 
purse.  Naturally  the  sole  aim  of  all  such  theatres 
was  the  advancement  of  art  and  education. 

Coming1  to  the  private  theatre,  we  observe  the  The  Modem 

°  L    ■  '  Theatre  a 

same  tendency  toward  advancement  in  architec-  Commercial 

J  Undertaking. 

tural  conformation.  The  private  theatre  of  Con- 
tinental Europe  is  sometimes  aided  by  subsidy, 
but  whether  so  aided  or  built  entirely  from  pri- 
vate funds,  it  is  always  designed  with  a  manifest 
interest  in  art  and  architecture,  while  in  English- 


18 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Different 
Types  of 
Private 
Theatres. 


speaking  countries  the  theatre  is  regarded  solely 
as  a  moneymaking  institution.  In  these  countries 
it. is  built  by  a  speculator,  an  investor  or  an  am- 
bitious actor,  who,  for  profit  only,  caters  to  the 
pleasure  of  sensation  seekers  usually  devoid  of 
any  appreciation  of  architecture  or  art.  There 
is  no  effort  to  emulate  the  worthy  example  set  by 
the  ancient  Greeks,  who  were  conservative  in 
their  art  and  strictly  opposed  to  realism. 

Included  in  the  general  class  of  private  thea- 
tres there  are  several  distinct  forms,  each  built  on 
lines  intended  to  serve  best  its  peculiar  use.  These 
embrace  the  music  hall  or  variety  theatre,  and 
the  hippodrome  or  coliseum.  The  former  is  so 
like  a  regulation  theatre,  except,  perhaps,  for  the 
addition  of  a  restaurant  or  drinking  pavilion, 
that  it  does  not  require  special  mention,  and  so 
few  hippodromes  are  now  built  in  this  country 
that  lengthy  descriptions  of  them,  as  hippo- 
dromes, would  unduly  encumber  these  pages. 
However,  as  large  central  theatres  devoted  to  the 
presentation  of  motion  pictures  on  a  grand  scale 
they  will  receive  due  attention. 

The  pioneer  of  the  private  theatre  in  Europe 
was  the  People's  Theatre  in  Worms,  Germany, 
founded  when  the  city  contained  less  than  25,000 
inhabitants.  It  exists  today  and  is  a  remarkable 
institution,  comprising  assembly  rooms,  a  restau- 
rant and  a  winter  garden.  A  diagrammed  plan 
of  this  theatre  is  shown  among  the  illustrations 
of  the  "Evolution  of  Theatres"  (Pages  7  and  8). 


A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  THEATRE  19 

The  destruction  by  fire  of  the  Ring  Theatre,  ¥££}**** 
in  Vienna,  on  December  8,  1881,  with  the  ap- 
palling loss  of  eight  hundred  lives,  aroused  all 
Europe  to  the  necessity  of  devising  a  model  safety 
plan  for  theatres,  and  many  enterprising,  archi- 
tects offered  models  that  have  had  a  lasting  in- 
fluence upon  theatre  construction.  Alfred  Derby- 
shire, an  English  architect,  designed  a  new  model 
that  was  adopted  by  Henry  Irving  (later  Sir 
Henry  Irving)  for  the  Lyceum  Theatre,  London, 
and  which  still  stands,  slightly  altered,  as  a  model 
of  capacity  and  safety.  Franz  Roth  of  Vienna 
suggested  another  form,  which  was  carried  out  in 
the  Raimund  Theatre  of  Vienna.  Another  and 
more  unusual  design  was  proposed  in  Germany, 
and  afterward  adopted  for  the  erection  of  the 
famous  Wagner  Opera  House  at  Bayreuth.  At 
the  present  writing  there  appears  to  be  a  decided 
tendency  toward  a  more  general  adoption  of  this 
form  in  European  advanced  theatres. 

AMERICAN  THEATRES. 

There  is  very  little  recorded  history  of  either 
the  American  drama  or  theatre  before  the  Revo- 
lutionary period.  "Androboros,"  written  by 
Governor  Hunter  in  1714,  is  the  single  notable 
exception.  Certain  it  is  that  the  sentiment  of 
those  rebellious  times  exercised  a  potent  influence 
on  the  development  of  both  theatre  and  drama. 
In  the  few  years  preceding  the  Revolution  thea- 
tres sprang  up  rapidly  in  New  York,   Philadel- 


H 

E 


20 


Raimund  Theatre,  Vienna 


Wagner  Opera  House,  Bayreuth,  Germany 


Model  Safety  Plans  for  Theatres 
21 


22 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Theatre 
Troubles  in 
Revolutionary 
Times. 


First  Real 
American 
Drama. 


phia,  Annapolis  and  Newport,  in  open  defiance  of 
the  religious  opposition  directed  against  the  so- 
termed  "profane  stage  plays"  of  that  day. 

During  the  tumultuous  days  .  preceding  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  Lewis  Hallam's 
English  players,  who  had  been  presenting  Shake- 
speare's plays  with  great  success  for  the  first  time 
in  this  country,  were  forced  to  migrate  to  the 
British  West  Indies,  not  to  return  for  many 
years.  One  or  two  theatres  were  torn  down  by 
enraged  republicans,  and  other  playhouses  were 
seized  by  the  British,  who  formed  companies  of 
players  from  among  their  soldiers  and  officers. 
Major  Andre,  besides  being  an  actor  in  these 
companies,  painted  scenes  for  New  York  and 
Philadelphia  theatres,  never  dreaming  that  they 
would  be  used  later  in  Manager  Dunlap's  great 
production  of  "Andre,"  as  scene  drops  to  depict 
the  place  where  Andre  himself  had  been  cap- 
tured as  an  English  spy. 

The  drama  of  that  period  dealt  largely  with 
the  subject  of  the  Revolution,  pro  and  con.  Will- 
iam Dunlap  was  the  famous  American  producer 
of  those  days,  and  his  influence  extended  well 
into  the  nineteenth  century.  The  first  real  Amer- 
ican play  was  "The  Contrast,"  a  comedy  con- 
ceived in  1787,  based  on  the  now  well-worn  com- 
parison between  the  native-bred  American  and  the 
American  who  has  become  an  Anglomaniac.  An 
innumerable,  number  of  Indian  plays,  glorifying 
the  savage,   also   held  the  stage  thereafter   for 


A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  THEATRE  23 

many  years,  partly  as  a  result  of  Edwin  Forrest's 
realistic  interpretation  of  the  Indian  in  John 
Augustus  Stone's  "Metamora."  After  this  peri- 
od many  tendencies  were  at  work  in  our  drama. 
With  the  coming  of  the  Civil  War,  however, 
play  acting  again  waned,  and  many  theatres  were 
closed.  When  the  war  was  under  way  the  theatre 
business  again  started  and  went  through  a  period 
of  extravagant  farces,  or  burlesques,  whose 
crudeness  and  indecency  reflected  the  moral  de- 
moralization then  rampant.  After  the  war  was 
ended  a  reactionary  element  arose  against  this 
abuse,  and  a  second  creative  period  was  instituted 
under  the  superior  management  of  the  eminent 
Augustin  Daly. 

The   greatest   individual   strides   in  American  j.  b.  McElfatrick, 

1  rr  1      1  -the  Father  of 

theatre  construction  have  been  effected  through  American 

°        Theatres. 

the  personal  endeavors  of  a  single  architect,  Mr. 
J.  B.  McElfatrick,  of  New  York  City,  who  should 
be  revered  as  the  Father  of  American  theatres. 
Thirty  years  ago  theatres  in  this  country  were  de- 
signed and  constructed  along  the  sames  lines  as 
their  English  prototypes.  They  had  the  same  sub- 
division of  the  seating  on  the  main  floor:  the 
American  distinction  between  the  parquet  and 
parquet  circles  corresponding  to  the  English  sepa- 
ration into  stalls  and  pit.  They  had  the  same 
lyre-shaped  balcony,  the  same  stage  projection  or 
apron,  and  the  same  extravagant  and  distracting 
ornamentation.  Mr.  McElfatrick,  who  had  never 
visited  Europe,  changed  all  of  this,  and  to  him 


24 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


A  Great 

Impetus  in 

Theatre 

Building 


was  intrusted  the  designing  of  most  of  the  new 
American  theatres  of  his  day.  He  perfected  the 
sight  lines,  arranged  the  seating  to  be  continuous 
from  front  to  back  on  the  main  floor,  and  made 
the  balconies  flatter  and  deeper.  The  useless  pro- 
jecting apron  of  the  stage  also  disappeared  in  his 
design.  Since  the  death  of  this  genial  old  gentle- 
man theatre  designing  has  not  substantially  ad- 
vanced in  this  country,  except  perhaps  for  a 
marked  tendency  toward  simpler  decoration. 
Theatres  have  multiplied  in  number,  but  they  are 
all  more  or  less  replicas  of  the  McElfatrick  model. 
Before  the  advent  of  Mr.  McElfatrick  there 
wrere  fewer  than  ten  theatres  in  the  City  of  New 
York,  and  in  other  large  cities  throughout  the 
country  they  numbered  scarcely  one  to  every  60,- 
000  inhabitants.  There  is  today  no  spot  in  the 
world  that  can  boast  of  so  many  so-called  "first 
class"  theatres  in  so  small  an  area  as  that  narrow 
belt  in  New  York  City  that  is  termed  "Broad- 
way," and  still  the  supply  is  inadequate  to  the 
demand.  At  the  present  writing  there  are  more 
new  plays  clamoring  for  admittance  and  a  hearing 
in  New  York  than  ever  before  in  local  histrionic 
history.  The  greatest  impetus  to  theatre  building 
throughout  this  country  has  come  within  a  com- 
paratively recent  period.  Today  the  proportion 
in  many  cities  runs  as  high  as  one  theatre  to 
every  10,000  persons.  Theatres  with  large 
auditoriums  and  great  seating  capacity  were  in  uni- 
versal demand  a  few  years  ago ;  now  smaller  and 


A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  THEATRE  25 

more  intimate  theatres  are  desired.  Houses  of 
great  capacity  are  now  being  erected  solely  for 
popular  priced  variety  theatres  or  picture  houses 

This  change  from  the  large  to  the  small  thea- 
tre is  no  doubt  due  in  a  measure  to  the  influence 
of  the  stage  reform  movement  and  the  uniform 
success  of  comedies,  farces  and  light  dramas  in 
small  intimate  theatres,  as  compared  with  the 
failure  of  similar  plays  in  larger  houses.  This 
result  has  not  failed  to  impress  the  mercenary 
theatrical  manager. 

Aside  from  its  seating  facilities,  the  American  Superiority  of 

0  .  the  American 

auditorium  in  its  form  and  construction  is  supe-  Auditorium, 
rior  to  that  of  European  countries,  not  ex- 
cepting England,  where  the  accommodations  for 
comfortable  seating  are  excellent.  European 
theatres,  including  those  of  England,  often  seat 
from  eight  hundred  to  a  thousand  persons  on 
the  main  floor  in  unbroken  rows  of  thirty 
seats  without  dividing  aisles.  This  is  an  incon- 
venience in  time  of  danger  that  would  not  be  tol- 
erated by  any  building  laws  in  this  country.  The 
seating  superiority  claimed  for  the  English  thea- 
tre lies  entirely  in  its  provision  of  space  between 
the  rows  of  chairs  that  permits  patrons  to  reach  in- 
terior seats  without  causing  anyone  to  arise.  The 
corrections  now  necessary  to  make  the  American 
auditorium  superior  to  the  auditorium  of  all  other 
countries  is  an  increase  of  only  four  inches  in  the 
dividing  space  between  the  rows  of  chairs  and 
the  substitution  of  comfortable  low-backed  chairs 


26  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

for  the  high-backed  variety  now  in  general  use, 
which  induces  a  slouchy  and  dangerous  posture. 
Sitting  with  the  pressure  of  one's  whole  weight 
on  the  same  bone  at  the  base  of  the  spine  inter- 
rupts the  blood  circulation  of  the  lower  extremi- 
ties, and  often  produces  fatal  results.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  needed, changes  in  seating,  the  audi- 
ence hall  would  present  a  more  cosy  appearance 
if  surrounded  at  the  rear  and  rear  sides  with  a 
foyer  behind  inclosed  boxes.  This  arrangement 
would  limit  the  area  to  be  supplied  with  sound 
and  would  also  improve  the  promenade  facilities 
between  the  acts. 
ofaThea^r0erm  ^e  most  recent  development  in  theatre  evolu- 

tion is  evidenced  in  the  motion  picture  houses, 
of  which  there  are  now  over  20,000  in  the  United 
States,  representing  an  investment  of  nearly  $500.- 
000,000.  Their  productions  appeal  to  the  visual 
sense,  and  the  success  of  this  silent  drama  has 
been  so  remarkable  that  it  has  exercised  a  potent 
influence  over  the  construction  of  regulation  thea- 
tres. One  of  these  influences  is  the  elimination  of 
the  top  gallery,  originally  designed  for  the  patron- 
age of  the  poor.  The  merit  and  cheapness  of 
moving  picture  entertainments  have  brought  un- 
precedented success  to  its  theatres  and  an  average 
daily  attendance  of  over  ten  million  patrons,  one 
in  every  ten  persons  in  the  total  population  of 
this  country. 


27 


28 


CHAPTER  II 

CONTROLLING  ELEMENTS 

IT  has  been  demonstrated  in  the  preceding 
chapter  that  certain  elements  have  governed 
the  theatre  in  the  evolution  of  its  conforma- 
tion. Many  of  the  same  elements  that  control  it 
as  an  institution  also  exercise  a  subtle  influence 
upon  its  physical  construction.  Baron  de  Meyer, 
a  foreign  critic  of  note,  recently  wrote  in  an 
article  published  in  a  leading  American  magazine 
that  the  people  in  this  country  who  are  respons- 
ible for  the  artistic  development  of  the  drama  are 
for  the  most  part  entirely  incompetent.  He  said 
that  their  productions  lack  the  keynotes  of  mod- 
ern stagecraft:  simplicity,  suggestion  and  atmos- 
phere. 

Even  where  large  productions  have  been  im-  inappropriate 

43       x  European 

ported  from  Europe,  improper  selections  have  spectacles 
been  made.  They  have  all  seemed  to  the  Baron  imported, 
like  glorified  editions  he  thought  impressive  in 
his  childhood  days.  "Sum'urun"  is  the  one  pro- 
duction of  that  master  of  stagecraft,  Max  Rein- 
hardt,  that  has  been  imported  into  this  country, 
and  although  it  has  met  with  wonderful  success 
here,  no  effort  has  been  made  .to  introduce  the 
more  artistic  and  successful  works  of  this  con- 
summate artist,  such  as  "The  Miracle/'  "Oedipus 
Rex,"  or  any  of  his  wonderful  productions  of 
the  immortal  Shakespeare. 

29 


30  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

The  efforts  of  theatrical  managers,  in  the 
Baron's  opinion,  have  been  falsely  centered  on 
the  box-office.  He  did  not  deny  that  we  have  su- 
perior artists  in  America,  such  as  Robert  Jones 
and  Joseph  Urban,  both  capable  men,  whose  tal- 
ents are  not  sufficiently  employed  in  regular 
theatrical  enterprises,  and  when  so  engaged  are 
usually  restricted  under  specific  directions.  Even 
Leon  Bakst  was  commissioned  to  execute  the 
stage  settings  of  a  portion  of  a  production  at  the 
New  York  Hippodrome,  without  any  visual 
knowledge  of  the  immense  stage  proportions  of 
that  edifice,  and  the  production,  in  consequence, 
fell  far  short  of  the  usually  marvelous  artistic 
merits  of  this  superior  craftsman. 
P^sLargeiy  Heywood  Broun,  the  scholarly  critic  of  the 
New  York  Tribune,  upon  being  solicited  for  ad- 
vice by  a  reader  of  his  newspaper  on  the  follow- 
ing question:  To  which  theatre  could  he  safely 
take  a  select  theatre  party  composed  of  about 
fifty  respectable  persons,  where  they  could  wit- 
ness an  interesting  play  devoid  of  salacious  lines 
or  sex  problems,  and  one  that  would  not  bring  a 
blush  to  the  face  of  any  father  or  mother  in  the 
party?  was  forced  to  reply  in  the  columns  of  his 
paper  that  out  of  over  forty  plays  then  showing 
in  New  York,  only  five  would  answer  the  pur- 
pose, and  he  was  able  to  recommend  only  one  of 
these  for  anything  like  superior  merit. 

When  one  scans  the  names  and  traces  the  an- 
tecedents and  history  of  those  responsible  for  the 


CONTROLLING  ELEMENTS  31 


Bad  Influence 
of  the  "Star 
System." 


kind  of  intellectual  fodder  that  is  supplied  to  thea 
tre  patrons  one  is  not  greatly  surprised  that  thea 
tre  patronage  has  degenerated  to  its  present 
standard.  All  manner  of  catch-penny  devices 
have  been  employed  to  gather  the  glittering  dol- 
lars, the  chief  among  which  has  been  the  "star 
system,"  which  is  now  apparently  sinking  into 
oblivion.  False  commercialism  once  dictated  the 
employment  of  a  star  or  stars  in  preference  to 
the  maintenance  of  a  well  balanced  caste.  Fine 
speeches  and  telling  lines,  important  for  lesser 
members  of  the  company,  have  been  appropriated 
by  the  star  to  the  great  detriment  of  the  play,  and 
more  importance  has  been  placed  by  the  manage- 
ment on  featuring  the  stellar  attraction  than  upon 
the  merits  of  the  play  itself.  Unthinking  com- 
petition and  diligent  press  exploitation  of  stars 
have  increased  their  salary  demand  beyond  any 
managerial  idea  of  profit,  and  a  revulsion  of  feel- 
ing has  now  resulted.  All  of  this  might  have  been 
averted  had  less  attention  been  accorded  to  the 
star  and  more  to  the  playwright,  for,  after  all, 
it  is  the  play  that  really  counts. 

At  the  present  writing  more  thought  is  be-  i^th\PPunch. 
stowed  upon  the  play  .in  this  country  than  previ- 
ously, though  it  is  not  yet  given  the  consideration 
it- deserves.  There,  is  too  little  atmosphere  and 
not  enough  suggestion.  The  spoken  word  is  mere- 
ly an  accessory  of  the  drama,  and  not  its  heart. 
American  plays  are  amateurish  and  suffer  from  a 
surfeit  of  strength.     There  is  a  Broadway  term 


32         MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

in  common  use  that  exactly  Expresses  this  qual- 
ity, "the  play  with  a  punch."  The  play  with  "the 
punch"  is  written  solely  for  that  "punch,"  and 
is  a  sensational  dramatization  of  the  violent  mo- 
ments of  life,  dealing  with  surface  aspects,  rather 
than  with  underlying  causes.  Only  an  American 
audience  with  keen  imagination  would  patiently 
endure  the  illogical  and  dull  moments  between 
and  leading  up  to  the  thrills  of  that  so-called 
"punch." 

SSSEtAit  Stagecraft  is  a  separate  art  in  itself,  that  aims 

to  inclose  the  drama  in  a  f ramelike  structure.  The 
first  principle  of  dramatic  art  is  its  primary  de- 
pendence upon  action,  and  the  setting  should  be 
an  unobtrusive  background  designed  to  concen- 
trate attention  on  that  action,  not  to  detract  from . 
it.  A  certain  American  arch-apostle  of  stage 
realism  has  gone  so  far  in  his  false  naturalism 
as  to  make  it  a  common  practice  to  reveal  in  all 
his  productions  a  completely  furnished  second- 
room  beyond  the  scene  of  action,  or  perhaps  to 
introduce  with  distractive  accuracy  of  detail, 
through  some  opening,  a  perspective  background. 
Nothing  is  left  to  the  imagination,  and  every  ef- 
fort, often  in  extremely  bad  taste,  is  made  to  dis-  ] 
turb  the  continuity  of  interest  in  the  play. 

NowllNe?dedia       Intense   dramas   with   subtle   beginnings,   dra-j 
matically  built  up  to  an  emotional  climax,  arel 
needed  to  win  the  return  of  intelligent  audiences 
to  the  theatre.     There  has  been  too  much  resort  J 
to  cheap  sensational  methods ;  too  much  desire! 


CONTROLLING  ELEMENTS  33 

to  attain  results  by  inappropriate  comic  relief  and 
melodramatic  turns;  and  not  enough  force  that 
is  strong,  direct  and  well  blended  with  subtlety. 
'Too  much  credit  has  also  been  given  to  technical 
stagecraft  in  the  production  of  these  plays,  and 
not  enough  to  the  merits  of  the  play  itself.  Mis- 
taken attention  to  detail  that  fails  in  its  true  pur- 
j  pose  and  diverts  attention  from  the  play  has  been 
too  widely  heralded  as  the  highest  form  of  dra- 
matic art. 

The  American  manager  is  too  intent  on  imme-  Mercenary 
diate  profits  and  too  much  afflicted  with  blind  Managen 
commercialism.  He  knows  too  well  the  tricks 
of  the  trade  and  has  little  or  no  conception  of  the 
art  of  the  stage.  As  at  present  constituted,  he 
is  either  incapable  or  persistently  unwilling  to  per- 
severe in  any  endeavor  to  improve  the  public  taste, 
and  in  consequence  the  more  intelligent  element 
of  the  community  has  been  alienated  from  the 
theatre.  Occasionaly,  when  some  European  suc- 
cess is  imported  into  this  country  in  its  entirety 
and  played  at  a  suitable  theatre,  one  observes  a 
class  of  audience  quite  unfamiliar  in  the  ordinary 
theatre.  Edwin  Bjorkman,  the  eminent  Norwe- 
gian critic,  has  truthfully  stated  that  the  Ameri- 
can theatre  was  organized  as  a  vast  gambling 
business,  and  he  opined  that  the  professional  gam- 
bler was  the  last  man  in  the  world  to  take  a  gen- 
uine risk.  This  statement,  in  a  measure,  accounts 
for  the  American  managerial  disposition  to  copy 


34 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


European 
Tendency 
Toward 
Dramatic  Art. 


German 
Theatre 
Specialists. 


things  that  have  already  succeeded  rather  than  to 
undertake  anything  new. 

On  the  Continent  of  Europe  there  is  a  fast- 
growing  inclination  toward  high  art  in  every 
branch  of  play  production.  This  tendency  also 
highly  influences  the  character  of  theatre  decora- 
tion and  construction,  and  the  most  advanced  de- 
velopment in  this  direction  is  in  German-speak- 
ing countries.  The  immense  popularity  of  the 
playhouse,  the  dominant  spirit  of  thoroughness, 
and  the  popular  interest  manifested  in  the  drama 
have  done  much  to  give  the  German  theatre  a 
prominent  position  in  social  life.  There  the  de- 
sire for  playgoing,  encouraged  by  the  general  op- 
portunity to  subscribe  for  a  series  of  perform- 
ances at  reduced  rates,  have  rendered  the  middle 
classes  as  competent  critics  of  the  drama  as  the 
more  highly  educated  members  of  the  community. 
In  English-speaking  countries,  especially  America, 
little  material  progress  has  been  made  by  the  thea- 
tre. Gordon  Craig,  an  eminent  English  producer 
of  the  advanced  school,  says  in  his  book  "Toward 
a  New  Theatre,"  that  "These  countries  are  now 
building  theatres  sixty  or  seventy  years  behind 
the  times,"  an  indictment  that,  to  a  great  extent, 
is  true. 

Professor  Max  Littmann,  a  famous  German 
architect,  has  done  much  to  revolutionize  ideas  in 
theatre  construction,  and  years  before  him  came 
another  German  specialist,  Gottfried  Sempner,  the 
originator  of  the  radial  system  of  planning,  now 


CONTROLLING  ELEMENTS  35 

generally  adopted  throughout  the  world.  To  his 
memory  belongs  the  credit  for  the  formation  of 
the  recent  school  of  theatre  architecture.  The  Art 
Theatre  of  Munich  and  the  Royal  Theatre  at 
Stuttgart,  comparatively  a  small  provincial  town, 
are  the  product  of  Professor  Littmann,  and  both 
present  models  of  artistic  utility. 

The  advanced  idea  of  the  drama  has  led  to  the 
erection  of  many  small  theatres  in  Germany, 
modeled  after  the  Art  Theatre  of  Munich.  The 
seating  in  these  small  theatres  is  confined  to  a 
single  floor.  They  lack  both  orchestra  wells  and 
footlights,  and  have  adjustable  proscenium  open- 
ings that  expand  or  contract  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  play.  They  are  equipped  with  every 
modern  device  known  to  the  theatre,  and  many 
of  these  innovations  could  easily  be  incorporated 
in  newly  built  theatres  in  America,  and  several  of 
the  important  ones  by  slight  alteration  in  older 
theatres.  The  artistic  design  of  these  miniature 
structures  is  distinctively  simple  and  is  not  more 
definitely  expressed  in  the  design  of  the  larger  and 
more  pretentious  advanced  theatres.  To  the  Amer- 
ican eye  their  interiors  resemble  public  halls 
rather  than  theatres. 

This  new  spirit  of  experiment  has  to  a  great  schhooLCW 
extent  invaded  Russia,  France  and  England. 
Leon  Bakst,  the  Russian  painter  and  famous 
stage  designer,  and  Constantin  Stanislavsky,  stage 
director  of  the  Art  Theatre,  Moscow,  Russia,  are 
propagating  the  cause  in  that   far  distant  land, 


36  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

while  Maeterlinck  and  Brieux  are  guiding  its 
destinies  in  Belgium  and  France.  In  England  the 
reform  interest  is  made  more  manifest  in  ad- 
vanced playwriting,  and  to  a  lesser  degree  in  logi- 
cal stage  production.  Closely  following  the  ex- 
amples set  by  the  Scandinavian  trio,  Ibsen, 
Strindberg  and  Bjornson;  and  the  German  dram- 
atists Hauptmann  and  Sudermann,  contempo- 
raneous writers  of  the  solid  worth  and  brilliancy 
of  George  Bernard  Shaw,  John  Galsworthy  and 
J.  M.  Barrie  are  deeply  concerned  in  presenting 
intense  and  sterling  drama  for  the  English-speak- 
ing stage,  with  the  superior  assistance  of  Gordon 
Craig  and  Granville  Barker  as  artist  stage  pro- 
ducers. Many  of  the  more  successful  plays  of 
these  writers  have  not  yet  been  introduced  in 
America. 
xncuhLton*'  This  idea  of  change  has,  in  a  lesser  degree,  af- 
fected America.  What  has  been  an  achievement 
in  Europe  is  only  a  substantial  promise  in  Amer- 
ica. The  emancipation  of  the  superior  class 
theatre  from  incompetent  hands  is  already  indi- 
cated ;  the  handwriting  is  upon  the  wall.  It  is  to 
the  amateur  theatre  or  college  that  one  now  looks 
for  experimental  development  and  progress. 
These  "dramatic  incubators"  are  often  situated  in 
towns  remote  from  theatrical  centers;  in  towns 
like  Madison,  Lake  Forest,  Cambridge,  Carmel, 
Wellesley  and  a  dozen  other  similar  places  that 
are  not   indicated  on  the  showman's  map.     In 


Incubators.' 


CONTROLLING  ELEMENTS  37 

most  advanced   American  colleges  dramatic  art 
has  been  added  to  the  curriculum. 

The  Greek  open-air  theatre  at  Berkeley,  Cali- 
fornia (see  illustration  preceding  this  chapter), 
is  an  excellent  example  of  the  type  of  theatre 
just  referred  to,  in  which  experiment  for  the 
uplift  of  the  drama  is  being  carried  on.  In  other 
centers  of  learning  and  culture  similar  efforts 
are  being  made  by  those  interested  in  art  for 
art's  sake,  and  permanent  homes  for  advanced 
dramatic  art  have  been  freely  established,  with 
more  to  follow. 

IXFLUEXCE  OF  OPEN-AIR  THEATRES. 
The  open-air  theatre  is  one  of  the  most  prom-  Beneficial 
ising  influences  in  the  dramatic  world  today.  It  Th?aPtre*sAir 
is  a  truly  democratic  institution  that  brings  to- 
gether great  numbers  of  people  interested  in  the 
high  motives  of  art  and  cements  their  friend- 
ship by  a  common  artistic  purpose.  Because  of 
the  rank  commercialization  of  the  regular  thea- 
tre the  outdoor  drama  has  proved  a  strong  social 
factor  in  many  communities.  A  word  here  as  to 
the  erection  of  such  a  theatre  may  not  be  amiss. 
In  constructing  an  open-air  theatre  it  should,  if 
possible,  face  the  east,  and  its  plan  should  be 
symmetrical,  with  spacious  approaches  from  the 
foreground  through  circular  colonnades  and  de- 
scent to  the  auditorium  by  broad  flights  of  steps 
that  lead  to  each  terrace.  These  auditorium  ter- 
races should  be  bounded  by  balustrades,  with  ap- 


38         MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

propriate  sculptured  figures  at  intervals,  and  the 
orchestra  plane  should  be  semi-circular  and  capa- 
ble of  being  divested  of  seats  when  the  occasion 
requires. 

The  stage  should  have  a  straight  front  with  a 
proscenium  formed  by  pylons,  surmounted  on 
each  side  by  iarge  groups  of  sculpture.  The  rear 
of  the  stage  should  be  formed  by  a  colonnaded 
screen,  through  which  vistas  of  trees  and  water 
may  be  seen  by  the  audience.  In  the  embellish- 
ment of  the  open-air  stage  there  is  little  that  the 
stage  decorator  can  add  to  nature's  background 
of  trees  and  shrubs.  The  keynote  for  outdoor 
stage  setting  must  be  simplicity,  and  everything 
introduced  into  the  setting  should  be  massive  in 
its  character.  Out-door  productions,  too,  should 
be  of  a  certain  largeness  and  characterized  either 
by  classic  dignity  and  severity  or  by  idyllic  loveli- 
ness and  charm.  As  a  rule  pageantlike  plays  that 
delight  the  eye  by  rhythmic  movement  and  color 
are  the  most  successful  in  the  open. 
The  Liuie^  £>ut  it  is  not  in  the  open-air  theatre  that  the 
best  work  is  being  done.  The  most  important 
innovations  have  been  made  in  the  little  theatres 
created  by  amateurs  throughout  the  country  for 
the  presentation  of  advanced  plays.  Many  of 
these  little  playhouses,  modeled  after  the  Art 
Theatre  of  Munich  and  other  little  theatres  in  Ger- 
many, have  been  erected  by  American  disciples  of 
this  new  movement.  These  small  theatres  started 
in  America  with  Maurice  Browne's  Little  Thea- 


Art  Theatres. 


CONTROLLING  ELEMENTS  39 

tre  in  Chicago,  which  seats  only  eighty-nine  per- 
sons when  crowded,  and  the  Toy  Theatre  of  Bos- 
ton. Maurice  Browne  at  Chicago  and  Livingston 
Piatt,  the  stage  director  of  the  Toy  Theatre,  have 
always  worked  as  artists  and  never  as  realists  in 
the  production  of  their  plays.  Mr.  Piatt  is  a  Har- 
vard disciple  of  the  famous  English  stage  pro- 
ducer, Gordon  Craig. 

A  more  ambitious  step  toward  advanced  theatre 
construction  has  been  made  by  Winthrop  Ames, 
a  Boston  millionaire,  in  the  erection  of  the  Little 
Theatre  in  New  York  (pictured  elsewhere  in  this 
volume).  A  host  of  small  theatres  in  New  York 
have  followed  this  latter  venture,  each  housing  a 
superior  company  of  players  vitally  interested  in 
advanced  dramatic  art,  who  wholly  produce  their 
plays  without  recourse  to  the  customary  theatrical 
sources.  The  Punch  and  Judy  Theatre,  The  Band 
Box  Theatre,  The  Neighborhood  Playhouse,  The 
Nine  o'clock  Theatre  and  Bramhall's  Playhouse 
are  numbered  among  these  and  all  have  enjoyed 
marked  success  during  their  initial  season  at  ad-, 
vanced  prices,  and  in  consequence  more  of  these 
tiny  theatres  are  being  built.  In  Philadelphia 
there  is  also  a  Little  Theatre,  and  elsewhere  this 
type  of  artistic  theatre  is  springing  up  with  en- 
couraging rapidity. 

Enthusiastic  reformers  of  the  drama  profess   civic 

r  ^  Theatres. 

to  believe  that  in  the  success  of  these  miniature 
theatres  they  see  the  promise  of  a  great  future 
for   similar   small   houses   throughout   America. 


40         MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

They  believe  their  advent  means  the  realization  of 
the  much  discussed  "Civic  Theatre."  There  is 
hardly  a  village  hall  throughout  the  country  that 
with  a  few  ingeniously  contrived  alterations,  in- 
cluding a  well-devised  and  colored  proscenium 
arch,  might  not  be  employed  to  present  effectively 
these  advanced  dramatic  productions.  The  proper 
presentation  of  many  advanced  plays  calls  for 
shallow  stages  and  ingeniously  angled  lighting, 
which  causes  the  actors  to  stand  out  like  figures 
on  a  bas-relief  panel.  All  of  these  effects  and 
many  others  would  be  easy  to  accomplish  in  such 
playhouses. 
sfettinrgs.Stage  The  stage  settings  could  also  be  simplified  to 
artistic  advantage.  Neutral-colored  draperies  or 
folding  screens  could  be  employed  for  back- 
grounds, and  while  the  entire  elimination  of 
"flats"  might  be  impossible  there  need  be  no  per- 
spective lines  painted  on  the  "flats"  used.  All 
such  lines  should  be  substantial  and  stand  out  in 
plastic  relief,  so  that  the  audience  could  perceive 
the  same  effect  from  any  angle.  The  "proper- 
ties" employed  upon  the  stage  should  also  be  real. 
Such  scenery  and  "properties"  need  not  be  more 
difficult  to  transport  than  the  present  kind,  and 
there  is  no  good  reason  why  the  expressed  hope 
of  these  ardent  reformers  should  not  be  fully 
realized.  Already  Charles  Edison,  a  son  of 
the  noted  inventor,  Thomas  A.  Edison,  has 
equipped  the  double  parlors  of  a  brownstone 
residence  at  No.    10  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 


Necessary. 


CONTROLLING  ELEMENTS  41 

City,  as  a  tiny  theatre,  which  he  calls  "The  Little 
Thimble  Theatre/'  In  this  small  playhouse,  seat- 
ing less  than  one  hundred  persons,  modern  plays 
of  merit  are  successfully  produced  by  Guido 
Bruno,  an  amateur  stage  director  of  the  artistic 
type- 
Strangely  enough,  America  has  also  neglected  cwidVen  f°r 
one  of  the  most  important  and  fruitful  uses  of 
the  theatre,  namely,  the  amusement  and  educa- 
tion of  children.  There  are  no  Marionette  thea- 
tres here  such  as  thrive  all  over  Europe,  nor  have 
we  regular  theatres  devoted  to  the  presentation 
of  children's  plays  like  "Cinderella,"  "The  Sleep- 
ing Beauty,"  "The  Fairy  Queen,"  or  "The  Pied 
Piper  of  Hamelin,"  and  a  host  of  similar  plays 
to  instill  in  the  young  a  love  for  the  beautiful  and 
an  active  appreciation  of  all  that  is  wholesome 
and  pure.  Performances  of  this  kind  would  as- 
sure a  future  reflection  of  those  ideals  when  the 
children  have  attained  maturity. 

What  America  needs  is  a  true  sense  of  art  to 
glorify  its  ideals.  If  Americans  looked  more  to 
advanced  ideals  of  art  and  less  to  the  commercial 
element  all  would  be  materially  benefited  and  in 
the  end  even  monetary  interest  would  be  consider- 
ablv  advanced. 


42 


CHAPTER  III 

SITE  SELECTION 

THE  first  and  one  of  the  most  important 
essentials  in  the  erection  of  a  theatre  is  the 
selection  of  its  site,  which  must  be  large 
enough  to  encompass  the  proposed  scheme  in  its 
entirety.  For  architectural  and  other  reasons  an 
isolated  site  is  preferable,  and  the  more  exposed 
the  site  the  more  imposing  may  be  the  finished 
structure.  A  corner  site  with  attractive  facades 
on  two  streets  is  next  in  desirability. 

Sentimental    reasons    are    often    greater    than   isolation  of 

&  Site  Not 

structural  reasons  for  the  selection  of  a  theatre  Essential, 
site,  yet  structural  restrictions  to  a  location  are 
neither  so  great  nor  so  frequent  as  it  is  generally 
supposed.  It  is  possible  to  construct  a  playhouse 
with  proper  regard  to  correct  planning  and  the 
safety  of  the  audience,  where  the  site  is  only  par- 
tially isolated  or -even  almost  inclosed.  The  party 
wall  without  openings  at  the  rear  of  the  stage,  for 
instance,  very  slightly  adds  to  the  risk  from  fire 
or  panic,  although  close  proximity  to  adjoining 
property  might  materially  affect  the  architectural 
appearance  of  a  theatre.  In  fact,  there  would  be 
no  serious  objection  to  both  the  front  and  rear 
division  walls  of  a  theatre  being  party  walls,  pro- 
vided the  side  walls  were  left  free  for  exits.  So 
far  as  the  convenience  and  safety  of  the  audience 
are  concerned  such  an  arrangement,  with  a  lobby 

43 


44 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Location  for  a 
Large  Central 
Theatre. 


Site  for  a 

Neighborhood 

Theatre. 


in  the  rear  and  entrances  at  each  side,  with  abun- 
dant exits  on  both  sides  of  the  theatre  opening  di- 
rectly on  to  the  street,  would  be  excellent  and 
would  permit  of  the  theatre  being  emptied  in  rec- 
ord time  in  case  of  danger. 

Another  important  requisite  is  the  location 
of  the  site.  Much  depends  on  the  kind  of 
theatre  to  be  built.  If  it  be  a  central  or  general 
theatre  for  the  patronage  of  the  masses,  the  site 
should  be  on  a  well  lighted  thoroughfare  in  a  pop- 
ulous section  of  the  community,  and  large  enough 
to  permit  of  the  erection  of  a  massive  and  im- 
posing structure  of  great  capacity  with  all  the  al- 
leys demanded  by  law.  The  presence  of  street 
cars  or  other  means  of  transit  is  a  decided  advan- 
tage. The  size  of  the  plot  would  be  governed 
largely  by  the  capacity  required.  A  plot  120  feet 
wide  by  175  or  200  feet  in  depth  for  the  audi- 
torium and  stage,  with  ample  space  on  the  street 
for  a  commodious  lobby,  would  be  sufficient  for 
comfortably  seating  over  2000  people.  The  lobby 
section  is  the  only  part  that  need  be  located  di- 
rectly on  the  street,  so  long  as  provision  is  made 
at  all  necessary  points  for  numerous  passages 
reaching  the  open  streets. 

For  a  medium  sized  theatre  intended  for  the 
patronage  of  a  special  class  or  neighborhood  the 
site  should  be  located  in  the  busiest,  best  lighted 
street  in  that  particular  section.  Its  size,  to  seat 
about  1 1 00  to  1300  people,  should  be  100  feet  by 
120  feet  for  the  auditorium  and  stage,  with  an 


SITE  SELECTION  45 

entrance  space  on  the  street  of  not  less  than  25 
feet  in  width. 

Should  a  smaller  form  of  theatre  for  the  dis-  litres, 
play  of  motion  pictures  or  for  other  uses  be  de- 
sired, it  would  be  well  to  choose  a  site  of  sufficient 
size  on  the  busiest  shopping  promenade  of  the  dis- 
trict to  be  exploited,  large  enough  to  accommodate 
a  house  of  the  requisite  dimensions,  with  such 
alleys  or  courts  as  are  demanded  by  law.  Long 
and  narrow  plots  should  be  avoided,  as  an  audi- 
torium whose  width  approximately  equals  its 
length  is  more  symmetrical  and  serviceable.  Even 
where  extraordinary  length  is  demanded  in  a 
picture  house  to  secure  increased  capacity  a  rec- 
tangular-shaped auditorium  will  not  seriously 
matter,  provided  there  be  ample  width. 

While  the  public  will  go  anywhere  to  witness   Good  Location 

r  .  .  Is  Essential. 

a  successful  performance  there  is  not  the  slightest 
doubt  that  given  the  same  play,  the  same  actors 
and  the  same  management,  the  theatre  in  a  good 
position  must  show  considerably  better  financial 
results  than  a  badly  located  house. 

The  physical  nature  of  a  plot  often  seriously 
affects  the  plan  of  a  playhouse.  A  steep  surface 
incline  of  the  premises  will  frequently  influence 
the  pitch  of  the  floor  and  thus  regulate  the  rela- 
tive position  of  the  stage  and  entrance,  provided 
a  change  of  the  location  of  these  would  not  seri- 
ously affect  the  commercial  or  artistic  aspect  of 
the  theatre. 

In  the  absence  of  streets,  municipal  regulations 


46        MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

usually  permit  the  substitution  of  open  courts  or 
alleys;  still  an  alley,  however  wide  it  may  be, 
never  affords  the  same  opportunity  as  a  street  for 
a  becoming  building  elevation,  nor  does  it  allow 
equal  facilities  for  safety. 
sS?v0egyi^hical  A  topographical  survey  of  the  plot  should  be 
Necessary.  made  before  definite  plans  are  prepared,  indicat- 
ing in  cross  and  longitudinal  ten-foot  sections 
the  ground  conformation  and  various  levels,  in 
order  properly  to  determine  the  foundation  and 
grade  lines,  and  to  estimate  correctly  in  advance 
the  depth  for  sewers  and  water  connections. 


View  of  Model  Neighborhood  Theatre 

For  Description  and  Diagrams  See  Pages  205-212 


47 


48 


CHAPTER  IV 
DESIGNING  AND  PLANNING 

GENERAL  ARRANGEMENT 

FOR  the  reasons  before  stated,  the  designing 
and  planning  of  theatres  in  this  country 
have  not  exhibited  the  same  general  prog- 
ress as  have  the  designing  and  planning  of  other 
types  of  buildings.  Few  theatres  can  compare 
with  modern  hotels,  either  in  respect  to  beauty 
or  in  the  provision  of  comforts  for  their  patrons. 
None  of  our  theatres  compares,  in  architectural 
elegance,  with  the  better  class  of  our  churches  and 
public  libraries,  as  very  few  theatre  architects 
rise  sufficiently  high  above  the  commonplaces  of 
life  to  contemplate  seriously  the  necessity  of  ar- 
tistic design  in  a  theatre.  The  general  demand 
appears  to  be  for  lavish  and  hideous  ornamenta- 
tion. 

There  are  no  definite  rules  or  principles  of  de-  No  Rules  for 
sign  that  may  be  laid  down  for  planning  a  thea- 
tre. It  should  be  the  aim  of  the  architect  to  exe- 
cute a  design  that  will  have  an  after-influence 
on  theatre  architecture,  because  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  effect  upon  public  taste  there  is  no 
other  type  of  structure  in  which  good  designing 
is  so  essential  as  it  is  in  the  theatre.  There  are 
very  few  playhouses  in  America  today  that  will 
serve  as  examples  of  theatre  architecture  worthy 
of  perpetuation. 

49 


50         MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

Although  England  has  furnished  the  pattern 
from  which  most  of  our  theatres  have  been  copied 
she  has  supplied  few  ideas  that  are  either  new  or 
original.  She  has  furnished  several  good  theatre 
planners,  but  they  have  only  catered  to  the  tradi- 
tional instincts  of  the  British  people  who,  above 
all  things,  always  demand  comfort. 

France  and  Italy,  also,  have  failed  to  furnish 
theatre  architects  of  authority  or  originality. 
While  it  is  true  that  there  are  in  both  of  these 
Latin  countries  theatres  in  whose  auditoriums  the 
decorative  treatment  is  wonderfully  beautiful, 
this  beauty,  however,  is  confined  principally  to  the 
ceilings,  many  of  which  are  ornate  masterpieces 
of  unique  design. 
Ge?ml£rity  °f  I*  nas  remained  for  German-speaking  coun- 
tries to  show  superiority  in  theatre  designing.  It 
is  in  the  departmentization  and  equipment  of  a 
theatre  that  these  countries  excel.  The  German 
theatre  furnishes  superior  comfort  and  conven- 
ience for  its  patrons,  as  well  as  for  its  actors 
and  employes.  Special  boxes  with  private  stair- 
ways and  entrances  from  the  carriage  concourse 
are  provided  for  royalty  and  distinguished  guests. 
While  this  may  be  a  feature  unnecessary  in  a 
democratic  country  like  America,  still  other  ad- 
vantages there  provided,  such  as  commodious 
foyers,  fine  restaurants,  spacious  parlors  and  re- 
tiring rooms,  with  ample  cloakrooms,  and  even  a 
well-equipped  hospital  for  first  aid,  would  surely 
appeal  to  the  American  playgoer.     In  the^  stage 


Theatres. 


DESIGNING  AND   PLANNING  51 

section  there  are  studios  for  designers,  sculptors 
and  scenic  artists;  workrooms  for  the  carpenter, 
decorator,  locksmith  and  blacksmith;  and  huge 
storerooms  for  scenery  and  properties,  while  in 
America,  theatres  are  considered  complete  that 
have  scene  docks,  storage  rooms  for  properties 
and  a  workroom  for  the  electrician  and  stage  car- 
penter. The  actors'  quarters  of  a  German  theatre 
have  well-equipped  lounging  and  lunch  rooms. 
Many  of  the  dressing  rooms  are  supplied  with 
baths  and  showers,  with  separate  sections  for 
men,  women  and  children.  There  are  assem- 
bly rooms  for  the  chorus  and  ballet  and  special 
hair  dressers  and  costumers  for  each.  Even  a 
storage  room  is  provided  for  the  actors'  bicycles, 
an  unnecessary  provision  in  this  country,  where 
most  of  the  actors  and  actresses  come  to  the  thea- 
tre in  their  private  automobiles. 

In  the  administration  departments  of  these 
same  theatres  there  are  separate  rooms  for  depart- 
ment heads  and  a  cashier's  office  equipped  with 
a  payroom  and  vault.  The  musicians  have  a 
lounging  room  and  storage  space  for  their  instru- 
ments. The  firemen,  too,  have  quarters  of  their 
own,  furnished  with  sleeping  accommodations  so 
that  firemen  may  always  remain  on  the  premises, 
and  better  safeguard  the  property  from  fire. 

Contrary  to  popular  belief,  the  United  States   comfortable 
is  poorly  provided  with  superior  and  comfortable  America8. in 
theatres.     There  are  plenty  of  large  theatres  in 
America ;  many  too  large.   But  there  are  very  few 


Investment. 


52         MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

that  are  either  strictly  modern  or  comfortable, 
and  hardly  any  that  by  their  exterior  design  indi- 
cate the  character  of  the  performance  within  their 
walls,  although  it  is  a  cardinal  principle  of  archi- 
tecture that  the  exposed  fagade  shall  be  a  visible 
expression  of  what  is  inside. 
?shanTheatre  ^ne  £reediness  of  American  managers  has  done 

much  to  retard  advancement  in  theatre  designing. 
Theatres  in  America,  like  their  English  proto- 
types, are  primarily  commercial  undertakings, 
and  consequently  financial  interests  dominate 
them.  The  owner  of  a  theatre,  when  not  under- 
taking the  production  of  the  entertainment  him- 
self, is  usually  able  with  a  little  discrimination  to 
select  a  lessee  fully  capable  of  bringing  him  a 
proper  return  from  his  investment.  The  idea  of 
promoting  dramatic  art  never  enters  his  mind. 
Although  private  theatres  in  Europe  are  some- 
times aided  by  subsidy,  theatres  in  America  are 
invariably  erected  as  private  moneymaking  enter- 
prises, and  very  good  investments  they  are  as  a 
rule.  The  writer  has  never  heard  of  a  well  lo- 
cated theatre  of  the  first  or  second  class  in  this 
country,  no  matter  how  old,  that  has  been  with- 
out a  paying  tenant  for  three  consecutive  months. 
Still,  he  believes  that  if  these  same  theatres  were 
modernized  and  a  higher  ideal  expressed  in  their 
design  their  rental  value  would  be  enhanced. 

Architects  too  often  take-  up  theatre  designing 
without  regard  to  the  intent  or  purpose  of  the 
venture;  the  consideration  of  dramatic  art  never 


DESIGNING  AND   PLANNING  53 

affects  them.  It  seems  that  many  of  those  now  en- 
gaged in  designing  theatres  are  at  best  merely 
good  planners,  good  constructors  or  good  busi- 
ness men. 

The  chief  qualification  demanded  of  them  by 
equally  inefficient  managers  or  owners  is  the  abil- 
ity to  construct  theatres  for  a  maximum  audience 
at  a  minimum  outlay,  providing  just  enough  com- 
fort to  insure  public  toleration.  Such  considera- 
tions as  ample  seating  space,  accessible  toilets, 
sufficient  coat-hanging  accommodation,  all  of 
which  are  most  necessary  comforts,  are  stinted 
or  sacrificed  to  satisfy  the  managerial  demand  for 
more  seats. 

In  designing  theatres  they  should  be  adequately  a  Helpful 
adapted  to  distinctive  productions.  So  long  as  Board, 
the  present  competition  and  strife  between  the- 
atrical syndicates  and  managers  persists  the  pub- 
lic will  never  enjoy  the  privileges  of  knowing 
beforehand  just  what  sort  of  amusement  to  ex- 
pect at  any  particular  theatre.  An  ideal  step 
would  be  the  creation,  by  legal  enactment  or  mu- 
tual agreement,  of  an  advisory  board,  to  deter- 
mine in  advance  the  theatre  best  suited  to  the  re- 
quirements of  each  individual  play.  Then  thea- 
tres might  be  better  planned  to  meet  the  needs 
of  special  types  of  entertainment,  and  the  sec- 
tion behind  the  curtain  line  could  be  properly  pro- 
portioned and  equipped  for  that  kind  of  perform- 
ance. Such  an  arrangement  would  create  an  in- 
centive for  designing  the  theatre  exterior  in   a 


54        MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

manner  to  suggest,  at  least,  the  form  of  enter- 
tainment housed  therein. 

The  salient  points  of  theatre  designing  can- 
not be  mastered  by  even  the  most  competent 
architect  who  is  not  a  theatre  specialist,  through 
the  aid  of  ordinary  architectural  or  engineering- 
books,  although  this  may  be  the  case  with  other 
types  of  buildings.  The  architect  should  not  be 
one  who  has  built  one  or  two  theatres  in  his  life 
time,  but  must  be  a  specialist  whose  practice  and 
energy  has  been  devoted  to  designing  theatres, 
and  to  whom  the  problem  has  become  a  perfectly 
clear  and  definite  task,  which  will  enable  him  to 
summarize  the  practicality  of  the  type  to  be 
designed,  the  chief  legislative  requirements  and 
the  economic  possibilities  of  the  venture.  Cor- 
rect theatre  designing  depends  largely  upon  care- 
ful study  and  systematic  correction  of  the  faults 
in  preceding  theatre  structures,  and  therefore  is 
a  subject  requiring  an  intimate  knowledge  of 
theatre  construction. 
The  Need  of  Most  of  the  theatre  deficiencies  in  this  country 

Specialists. 

are  the  result  of  a  woeful  lack  of  qualified  spe- 
cialists in  this  line  of  work.  Specialization  is  as 
needful  in  theatre  architecture  as  in  other  branches 
of  industry.  It  brings  with  it  an  expert  knowl- 
edge of  conditions  and  details  that  may  always 
be  employed  to  the  owner's  advantage.  The  need 
of  specialists  has  been  convincingly  demonstrated 
by  the  unfortunate  experience  of  a  highly  repu- 
table firm  of  architects  who  were  commissioned 


, 


DESIGNING  AND  PLANNING  55 


by  a  group  of  multi-millionaires  to  build  the  Cen- 
tury Theatre  in  New  York  City,  and  to  spare  no 
expense  to  make  it  a  success.  Although  millions 
had  been  spent  in  its  erection  the  theatre  was  a 
failure,  largely  through  the  firm's  inexperience 
in  theatre  construction.  A  futile  attempt  had 
been  made,  probably  at  the  demand  of  the  pro- 
moters, to  build  it  large  enough  to  house  prop- 
erly all  classes  of  productions,  from  grand  opera 
to  light  comedy.  The  result  was  an  auditorium 
of  such  immensity  that  defective  sight  condi- 
tions and  faulty  acoustics  were  produced.  The 
latter  defect  has  been  corrected  by  an  acoustic 
specialist,  but  the  theatre  has,  nevertheless,  en- 
countered repeated  failures  because  of  its  other 
faults,  although  vast  sums  have  been  often  ex- 
pended for  extensive  alterations.  Now  it  has 
been  again  remodeled  as  a  music  hall  on  conti- 
nental lines.  The  plan  of  this  theatre  is  illus- 
trated on  the  page  preceding  Chapter  I  as  the  most 
recent  development  in  theatre  evolution.  This, 
however,  refers  to  the  form.  Whatever  its  other 
faults,  the  theatre  has  an  excellently  designed 
auditorium. 

After  the  site  has  been  selected,  the  first  con-  size  and 

Scale. 

sideration  in  laying  out  a  theatre  is  that  of  size 
and  scale,  and  this  is  a  matter  too  often  slighted 
in  theatre  planning.  These  are  subjects  that  call 
for  the  utmost  attention,  not  only  from  the  archi- 
tect, but  from  the  owner  as  well. 
'The  requirements   for  grand  opera  and  dra- 


56  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

matic  productions  are  very  dissimilar.  The  opera 
house  for  grand  opera  (not  under  consideration 
in  this  treatise)  requires  a  special  form  of  build- 
ing to  accommodate  the  necessary  tiers  of  pri- 
vate boxes  and  to  furnish  special  acoustic  prop-^ 
erties  for  singing.  A  spectacular  or  large  musi- 
cal attraction  also  demands  a  building  different 
in  size  and  proportion  from  one  devoted  to  light 
drama,  comedy  or  farce.  Aside  from  the  relative 
proportions  of  the  various  types,  the  necessary 
differences  in  stage  equipment  must  be  consid- 
ered. The  spectacular  and  large  musical  shows 
require  an  ample  audience  hall  and  an  equally 
large  or  larger  stage,  especially  equipped  for  each 
kind  of  performance,  while  light  drama,  comedy 
or  farce  demands  a  smaller  or  more  evenly  pro- 
portioned stage,  not  so  elaborately  equipped.  The 
motion  picture  house  necessitates  still  another 
form  which  will  be  considered  in  a  later  chapter, 
devoted  to  the  motion  picture  theatre. 
No  In  connection  with  the  size  and  the   relative 

"Fussiness"  .  .  .  1  1  • 

in  Design.  proportions  ot  the  various  departments,  the  archi- 
tectural treatment  of  the  building  must  be  con- 
sidered. There  should  be  no  "fussiness"  about 
a  theatre  design.  All  unnecessary  ornament  should 
be  avoided,  as  tending  to  distract  attention  from 
the  central  or  dominating  motive,  and  every  other 
feature  should  be  likewise  subordinated.  When 
a  single  architectural  idea  is  well  expressed,  the 
result  is  always  simple  and  good. 

The  exterior,  while  it  should  be  inviting  to  the 


DESIGNING  AND    PLANNING  57 

spectator,  must  be  designed  with  sobriety  and  J^K,?' 
offer  an  outward  appeal  to  the  eye  reflecting  the 
ideals  housed  within.  It  should  never  excite  ex- 
pectations that  are  to  be  dispelled  by  a  display  of 
"cramped  meanness  in  the  interior.  If  the  theatre 
is  to  be  devoted  to  spectacles  or  exhibitions  on  a 
grand  scale,  or  designed  for  popular  patronage  at 
low  prices,  it  should  be  impressive  in  style  and 
massive  in  its  proportions.  If  it  be  designed  for 
light  drama,  comedy  or  farce,  its  design  should 
be  smaller  and  more  intimate  in  character.  If 
it  is  to  be  used  for  melodrama  or  musical  shows, 
it  should  be  constructed  of  medium  size,  with 
every  evidence  of  refinement  and  comfort.  In 
each  instance  great  care  should  be  exercised  to 
proportion  correctly  the  different  departments. 

Whatever  the  size  or  character  of  the  theatre,  safety  and 

Comfort. 

it  should  be  suited  in  every  respect  to  the  recep- 
tion and  comfort  of  its  patrons.  The  element 
of  safety  is  the  most  important  in  theatre  con- 
struction. The  building,  together  with  its  con- 
tents, should  be  practically  fireproof,  and  the  pub- 
lic must  be  carefully  guarded  against  danger  from 
fire  or  panics  occasioned  by  alarms  of  fire.  If 
it  be  possible  to  convey  an  impression  of  security 
by  structural  appearance,  so  much  the  better. 
Problems  of  construction,  fireproofing,  electricity, 
plumbing,  heating  and  ventilation  are  not  dif- 
ferent in  a  theatre  than  in  any  other  building. 
The  consideration  of  comfort,  also,  is  essential. 
Both  safety  and  comfort  are  treated  separately 


58 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


in  later  chapters.  The  question  of  acoustics,  too, 
always  a  serious  one  in  designing  theatres  for  the 
spoken  drama,  will  be  taken  up  independently  in 
a  special  chapter  devoted  to  that  subject. 


Proportions 
of  the 
Theatre. 


Proscenium 
Opening. 


AUDITORIUM 

The  design  of  the  auditorium  is  a  prime  con- 
sideration in  theatre  planning.  Its  formation 
and  decoration  should  tend  to  focus  attention 
upon  the  scene  pictured  on  the  stage.  The  one 
proportion  that  regulates  the  dimensions  of  an 
auditorium  is  the  width  of  the  proscenium  open- 
ing, or  vice  versa.  The  width  of  the  opening 
should  be  slightly  more  than  half  the  width  of  the 
audience  hall.  An  audience  hall  forty  feet  wide 
should  have  an  opening  of  about  twenty-one  feet ; 
a  sixty-foot  width  of  hall  should  have  an  opening 
of  about  thirty-two  feet,  and  an  eighty-foot  hall 
an  opening  of  forty-three  feet. 

The  height  of  the  opening  should  be  about 
equal  to  three-fourths  of  its  width  and  the  angle 
of  the  opening  itself  about  45  degrees.  While  a 
proscenium  opening  with  a  greater  height  than 
width  might  present  to  some  eyes  a  better  archi- 
tectural effect,  the  reverse  proportion  is  more 
practicable  and  in  the  writer's  opinion  more  ar- 
tistic. 

The  manner  in  which  the  stage  opening  is 
framed  usually  determines  the  architectural 
treatment  of  the  auditorium.  Where  the  top  of 
the  opening  is  arched  the  ceiling  of  the  room 


DESIGNING  AND   PLANNING  59 

should  be  curved  to  correspond.  If  it  be  flat  the 
ceilmg  should  be  formed  flat.  An  opening  with 
a  flattened  elliptical  top  presents  the  best  appear- 
ance and  suggests  a  simple,  effective  design  for 
the  ceiling.  With  amply  and  properly  curved 
coves  for  reflected  indirect  lighting,  and  with  a 
well-devised  central  open  dome  for  ventilation 
that  can  be  opened  to  the  sky  in  the  warm  sum- 
mer months,  such  a  ceiling  is  ideal.  The  space 
immediately  above  the  proscenium  opening,  us- 
ually termed  the  sounding  board,  should  be  low 
and  curved  outward  to  reflect  better  both  sound 
and  heat. 

There  is  no  part  of  a  theatre,  within  or  with- 
out (not  even  the  auditorium  in  which  the  old- 
fashioned  style  of  defacing  its  walls  with  mean- 
ingless and  inartistic  plaster  wreaths  and  ribbons 
still  persists),  that  is  so  commonly  overloaded 
with  meaningless  ornamentation  as  the  prosce- 
nium opening.  This  frame,  being  the  construc- 
tive feature  closest  to  the  action  on  the  stage,  has 
greater  possibilities  than  any  other  place  for  dis- 
tracting attention  from  that  action.  It  should, 
like  the  auditorium  itself,  be  as  simple,  harmo- 
nious and  unobtrusive  as  possible. 

The  shape  of  the  auditorium  is  at  present  un-  shape  of  the 

c  r  Auditorium. 

dergoing  many  changes.  The  old-fashioned 
rectangular  type  of  audience  hall,  with  a  lyre 
or  horseshoe  shaped  balcony,  has  been  superseded 
by  the  square  auditorium  with  contracting  paneled 
walls  approaching  the  stage  opening,  curved  rear 


60  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

walls  with  well  rounded  corners,  and  a  balcony 
whose  front  follows  the  seat  line  below.  In  ad- 
vanced theatres,  stage  boxes  are  eliminated  for 
acoustic  reasons,  and  to  direct  concentrated  at- 
tention upon  the  stage.  In  a  truly  democratic 
country  it  is  assuredly  not  necessary  to  provide 
conspicuous  boxes  for  persons  of  superior  rank 
or  social  distinction. 

It  is  possible,  however,  that  this  square-shaped 
auditorium  may  not  long  endure,  as  there  is  al- 
ready a  tendency  in  Continental  Europe  toward 
the  adoption  of  the  fan-shaped  form  employed 
in  the  Wagner  Opera  House  at  Bayreuth,  pic- 
tured on  Page  21.  This  is  a  model  affording  the 
best  sight  lines  and  the  safest  means  of  escape  in 
case  of  danger. 

The  decoration  of  the  auditorium  should  be 
chaste  in  its  simplicity  and  subtle  in  the  harmony 
of  its  coloring.  Such  effects  are  more  conducive 
to  a  sense  of  contemplation  than  riots  of  mean- 
ingless ornament  and  brilliant  coloring.  The  aim 
should  be  to  foster  a  spiritual  mood  and  to  render 
the  senses  more  susceptible  to  favorable  impres- 
sion, 
sight  Lines.  One  of  the  most  important  requisites  in  design- 

ing an  auditorium  is  the  establishment  of  correct 
sight  lines.  As  no  two  theatres  are  exactly  alike 
the  sight  lines  for  each  building  must  be  worked 
out  separately.  This,  however,  is  a  comparatively 
simple  operation. 

Theoretically  the  spectators  in  the  last  row  of 


DESIGNING  AND   PLANNING  61 

seats  underneath  the  balcony  should  be  able  to  vFsfon?* 
see  the  top  of  the  proscenium  opening,  and  the 
angle  of  vision  should  never  exceed  45  degrees. 
Errors  in  sight  lines  are  one  of  the  commonest 
mistakes  in  theatre  construction.  A  recently 
built  theatre  in  New  York  City,  publicly  pro- 
claimed a  wonderful  theatre,  shows  the  result  of 
this  miscalculation.  The  mistake  was  discovered 
as  the  theatre  was  about  to  be  opened,  and  an 
effort  was  made  to  correct  it  by  lowering  the 
main  floor,  a  procedure  that  naturally  had  to  be 
abandoned,  as  it  meant  the  alteration  and  destruc- 
tion of  correct  sight  lines  from  the  already  con- 
structed balcony. 

The  first  necessary  step  toward  fixing  sight 
lines  is  to  establish  a  proper  slope  for  the  main 
floor.  This  pitch  may  depend  somewhat  upon 
local  conditions.  If  the  natural  grade  be  lower 
at  the  stage  end  of  the  auditorium  and  slope  up- 
ward toward  the  main  entrances  to  a  point  equal 
with,  or  two  or  three  steps  above  the  sidewalk 
level,  the  problem  is  partly  solved.  Otherwise  it 
may  be  necessary  to  reverse  the  slope  of  the  audi- 
torium or  raise  the  corridor  entrance  considerably 
above  the  ground  level. 

If  possible  a  proper  slope  must  be  given  to  the  siopeof 

n  .   .  ,  r       .  ,  Main  Floor. 

mam  floor  without  the  necessity  of  risers  by  an 
incline  made  in  the  shape  of  a  parabolic  curve,  as 
indicated  by  the  diagrams  on  Page  68.  The  in- 
cline of  the  first  few  rows  need  not  be  great,  as 
the  eyes  of  the  persons  in  these  rows  are. about 


62         MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

level  with  the  stage  floor,  but  it  should  increase 
perceptibly  from  about  the  fourth  to  the  last  row, 
and  be  so  adjusted  that  each  spectator  can  easily 
see  over  the  head  of  the  person  in  front  of  him. 
The  old  fashioned  saucer-shaped  main  floor,  with 
its  seats  curving  upward  on  either  side,  had  its 
commendable  points.  However,  the  building  laws 
in  many  cities  regulate  the  pitch  of  theatre  floors. 

With  the  incline  of  the  main  floor  established, 
experimental  sectional  lines  to  determine  the  bal- 
cony slope  and  the  various  sight  lines  should  be 
drawn  on  the  section  of  the  plans,  as  follows : 

From  a  point  corresponding  to  the  position  of 
the  eye  of  a  person  seated  in  the  last  row  of  seats 
(about  three  feet  above  the  floor  level)  draw  a 
vision  line  underneath  the  balcony  to  the  top  of 
the  proscenium  opening.  This  vision  line  fixes 
the  lowest  possible  vertical  position  of  the  under- 
side of  the  balcony. 
Risers!7  A  line  drawn  from  the  base  of  the  stage  at  the 

intersection  of  the  curtain  line  and  main  floor 
level  through  the  top  of  the  first  riser  to  the  top  of 
the  rear  balcony  riser  will  determine  the  various 
heights  of  intermediate  risers. 

Then  draw  two  vision  lines  from  the  eye  points 
of  persons  seated  in  the  first  and  last  rows  of 
the  balcony  (about  three  feet  above  the  floor 
level)  to  a  common  point  well  below  the  front 
line  of  the  stage.  This  will  establish  the  balcony 
sight  lines. 

If  the  balcony  be  a  wide  one  with  curved  sides, 


DESIGNING  AND    PLANNING  63 

additional  sight  lines  should  be  drawn  on  both   sight-Lines 

1    r  1  1111  1     with  wide 

sides,  and  from  underneath  the  balcony  on  each  Balconies. 

side  as  well,  to  fix  the  sight  lines  at  these  points. 

These  additional  lines  may  make  it  necessary  to 

lower  the  balcony  sides  a  trifle  with  a  downward 

curve. 

Should  the  sight  lines  not  prove  satisfactory, 
a  minor  change  in  the  slope  of  the  main  floor  or 
the  elimination  of  a  single  row  of  seats  from  the 
balcony  will  cause  a  considerable  improvement. 
The  correct  pitch  for  a  balcony  should  never  be 
over  fifteen  and  a  half  inches  for  each  riser,  or 
two  steps  of  seven  and  three-fourths  inches  each. 

In  designing  stairways  leading  to  balconies  due  stairways, 
regard  must  be  given  to  employing  the  fewest 
possible  number  of  steps,  and  where  possible,  the 
steps  should  be  arranged  between  landing  plat- 
forms in  groups  of  not  more  than  a  dozen  con- 
tinuous steps.  If  the  balcony  be  a  high  one,  there 
should  be  an  intermediate  mezzanine  floor,  with 
a  broken  pair  of  stairs  on  each  side  of  the  house, 
and  continuous  broken  flights  extending  from 
this  floor  to  the  rear  level  of  the  balcony.  The 
principal  stairways  from  the  different  parts  of 
the  house  should  lead  direct  to  the  foyer  or  lobby, 
with  runs  that  turn  in  one  direction  only.  For 
an  example  of  ingenious  stairways  see  illustra- 
tion at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

From  the  mezzanine  floor,  pierce  the  balcony  Balcony 
with  entrance  tunnels  on  each  side  of  the  house  Tunadsf 
to  the  cross  passage  in  the  rear  of  the  front  tier 


64         MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

of  balcony  loggias.  If  the  balcony  be  very  wide 
ccmstruct  in  addition  intermediate  tunnels.  Cloak- 
rooms and  administration  offices  may  also  be 
placed  on  this  mezzanine  floor,  which  should  be 
cut  out  and  designed  like  a  balcony  for  the  foyer 
below. 
The  Cantilever       There  should  be  no  exposed  posts  to  hold  up 

Principle.  —  ir  r  i 

the  balcony.  It  should  be  supported  on  the  canti- 
lever principle,  either  with  or  without  cross 
trusses  resting  on  columns  imbedded  in  the  walls. 
Sometimes  it  is  possible  to  inclose  a  series  of 
two-inch  or  three-inch  Lally  columns  in  the  parti- 
tions between  the  boxes  as  additional  support. 

The  seating  conditions  will  be  discussed  sepa- 
rately in  the  chapter  devoted  to  "Comfort." 
Orchestra  It   is  highly  important  that  the  lines   encom- 

passing the  orchestra  well  should  be  so  arranged 
as  to  insure  good  acoustics  and  at  the  same  time 
conceal  all  view  of  the  musicians  from  the  audi- 
ence. There  is  nothing  more  disturbing  in  a  thea- 
tre than  the  heads  of  musicians  bobbing  into  view 
above  the  orchestra  rail  during  a  performance. 
Soft  strains  of  hidden  music  will  give  the  effect 
of  coming  from  a  distance,  and  are  far  preferable 
to  the  blatant  blasts  of  an  exposed  brass  band. 

It  is  also  of  advantage  to  have  a  suitable  sound- 
space  underneath  the  orchestra  well,  and,  if  pos- 
sible, surrounding  it.  The  Court  Theatre  at  Wies- 
baden, Germany,  has  an  arrangement  whereby 
divisional  platform  sections  of  the  orchestra  well 
are  mounted  on  hydraulic  lifts,  which  may  be  ele- 


Well. 


DESIGNING  AND    PLANNING  65 

vatecl  to  suitable  heights  or  even  to  the  level  of  the 
auditorium  floor  if  desired. 

The  orchestra  well  of  the  famous  Wagner  Op- 
era House  at  Bayreuth,  a  diagram  of  which  is 
shown  on  Page  133,  embodies  an  excellent  ar- 
rangement for  an  orchestra  well.  Supplemented 
with  hydraulic  lifts  and  a  sounding  space,  such 
an  orchestra  well  would  be  ideal. 

COMMUNICATION. 

The  communication  of  a  theatre  has  reference 
to  the  vestibule,  foyer,  aisles,  exits  and  stairways 
that  intercommunicate  between  the  various  sec- 
tions of  the  playhouse. 

The  first  section  of  communication  is  the  ves-  vestibule, 
tibule  or  outer  lobby,  which  should  offer  every 
facility  for  the  entrance  of  the  patrons.  It  should 
never  show  the  same  warrnth  of  decoration  as 
the  better  parts  of  the  house,  but  it  should  be  a 
simply  treated,  inviting  approach  to  the  auditori- 
um. Its  size  should  be  such  as  to  prevent  any  pos- 
sibility of  congestion,  even  in  time  of  panic,  but 
it  should  not  be  so  large  as  to  waste  space  that 
might  be  put  to  better  use. 

The  location  of  the  box  office  and  a  local  man-  Box  office. 
ager's  office  within  it  is  largely  a  matter  of  con- 
venience. There  should,  however,  be  two  ticket 
windows  in  the  box  office,  separated  from  one 
another  by  space  sufficient  to  permit  the  sale  of 
tickets  for  the  present  performance  and  those  for 
future  booking  without  confusion.     The  number 


66 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Foyer. 


Exits. 


Aisles  and 
Passages. 


and  arrangement  of.  retiring  rooms  and  toilets 
will  be  taken  up  later  in  the  chapter  devoted  to 
"Comfort" 

Next  in  order  of  sequence  is  the  foyer,  the 
drawing  room  of  a  theatre.  In  England  the  foyer 
partakes  of  the  character  of  a  "lounge,"  and  is 
generously  provided  with  comfortable  settees. 
This  is  a  requisite  feature  where  the  foyer  also 
becomes  the  promenade. 

For  the  sake  of  safety  the  lobby  or  foyer  should 
be  made  common  to  all  parts  of  the  house.  The 
semi-circular  corridor,  originally  created  by  Gott- 
fried Sempner,  and  now  universally  used  in  good 
theatre  designing,  is  a  true  idea  for  a  foyer. 

The  playgoer  instinctively  prefers  to  leave  the 
theatre  by  the  way  he  entered  it,  and  in  time  of 
panic  will  employ  only  the  means  of  escape  with 
which  he  is  thoroughly  familiar.  For  this  reason 
all  exits  and  passages  of  communication  should 
be  so  distributed  and  arranged  that  they  are  in 
constant  use  by  the  audience.  While  the  average 
playgoer  may  not  have  a  keen  appreciation  of  the 
architectural  treatment  of  a  theatre,  a  clear  plan 
and  abundant  means  of  quick  exit  will  surely  ap- 
peal to  him  and  do  much  to  popularize  a  play- 
house. 

The  seating  should  be  arranged  in  continuous 
rows,  thirty-six  inches  from  back  to  back  (instead 
of  thirty-two  inches,  the  legal  distance  now  em- 
ployed in  America),  with  ample  aisles  radiating 
from  the  front  of  the  auditorium  to  the  rear.   At 


DESIGNING  AND    PLANNING  67 

the  points  opposite  the  side  entrances  from  the 
foyer  widened  passages  between  rows  should  be 
introduced,  extending  to  the  middle  or  interme- 
diate aisles,  as  necessity  may  require.  Where  it 
is  desirable  the  radiating  aisles  may  turn  at  this 
dividing  passage  and  extend  parallel  to  the  side 
walls  to  the  rear  of  the  auditorium;  or  if  the  cross 
passage  be  a  liberal  one,  new  aisles  may  be  formed 
from  it. 

There   should    never   be   more   than    fourteen  Fourteen 
chairs  between  aisles  in  any  single  row,  and  if  Maximum, 
one  end   of   the   row   be   blind   and   without   an 
aisle,  seven  chairs  should  be  the  limit. 


;        Hit 


SilA^/Wl- 


l:>; 


ra 


68 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  STAGE  SECTION. 

SPECIAL  interest  has  been  taken  in  the  de-  ?ne™aunity. 
velopment  and  equipment  of  the  German 
stage/  Yielding  to  the  influence  of  art,  Teu- 
tonic ingenuity  is  continually  devising  new  mech- 
anisms and  original  effects,  many  of  which,  it  is 
true,  would  be  impracticable  in  American  thea- 
tres so  long  as  profit  remains  the  determining 
factor  in  theatre  construction. 

In  America  the  relative  size  and  equipment  of 
the  stage  are  usually  overlooked  in  the  mercenary 
anxiety  to  provide  only  for  seating  capacity,  but 
the  time  may  come  when  the  architect  will  be 
asked  by  the  manager  or  owner  to  enlarge  the 
stage  in  correct  proportion  to  the  auditorium,  in 
order  properly  to  accommodate  the  productions 
that  custom  or  public  taste  may  demand  as  suit- 
able for  that  theatre. 

The  main  features  of  a  German  stage  that 
would  impress  an  American  architect  are  its  size, 
plan  and  mechanical  contrivances,  the  unique  de- 
vices for  building  up  scenic  effects,  and  the  per- 
fect lighting  arrangement.  The  dimensions  of 
the  New  Deutche  Opera  House  stage  in  Char- 
lottenburg,  Berlin,  are  colossal.  This  stage  meas- 
ures 249  feet  in  width  by  170  feet  in  depth,  being 
the  largest  in  the  world;  larger  even  than  the 
immense  stage  of  the  New  York  Hippodrome. 

69 


70        MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

The  scenic  contrivances  and  lighting  arrange- 
ments of  modern  German  theatres  are  little  short 
of  marvelous. 

One  idea  only  have  the  modern  theatres  of 
Europe  adopted  from  America;  the  American 
level  stage.  The  pitched  stage  previously  em- 
ployed in  Europe  for  the  better  vision  of  the  audi- 
ence has  been  recently  discarded  for  the  artistic, 
constructive  and  technical  advantages  of  a  level 
stage. 

A  few  years  ago  scene  changes  were  made  in 
all  theatres  during  intermission,  but  by  recent  in- 
novations that  permit  a  prearrangement  of  set- 
ting to  be  used  much  time  is  now  being  saved  in 
advanced  playhouses  and  better  effects  are  being 
obtained.  These  necessary  devices  have  not  yet 
been  generally  adopted  in  America,  but  the  inevit- 
able importation  of  large  stage  productions  from 
Europe  will  make  necessary  the  correction  of  this 
serious  fault  in  American  stagecraft. 
Turn-Table  jn  1896  Head  Engineer  Lautenschlager  of  the 

Residence  Theatre  at  Munich,  Germany,  invented 
and  first  used  the  now  famous  revolving  stage, 
which  permits  the  simultaneous  preparation  of 
several  scenes,  each  in  its  proper  turn  being  pre- 
sented to  the  audience  by  revolving  the  turn-table 
so  that  the  desired  scene  comes  into  view  through 
the  proscenium  opening.  This  device  is  an  ex- 
cellent one  for  use  in  comedies  or  light  dramas, 
and  has  been  already  adopted  in  several  Ameri- 
can theatres. 


THE  STAGE  SECTION  71 

This  turn-table  stage,  however,  failed  to  fill  the  Reform  stage, 
requirements  of  large  productions,  and  two  fur- 
ther general  schemes  were  devised.  In  one  of 
these  there  were  side  and  rear  stages  consisting 
of  huge  movable  platforms  adjoining  the  slightly 
depressed  actual  playing  stage.  The  different 
settings  were  built  up  on  these  auxiliary  plat- 
forms and  rolled  into  place,  as  desired,  above  this 
playing  stage.  This  device  was  called  the  Re- 
form Stage  and  was  originated  by  Stage  Director 
Brandt  of  the  Berlin  Court  Theatre,  where  it  was 
first  installed. 

In  the  other  scheme  the  movable  portions  of   Asphaiia 

r  t  Stage. 

the  stage  floor  were  so  increased  that  the  entire 
working  stage  became  a  series  of  hydraulic-lift 
platforms,  capable  not  only  of  being  raised  and 
lowered  but  also  of  being  propelled  laterally.  The 
scenes  in  this  system  are  built  up  in  the  basement 
underneath  the  stage,  wheeled  into  the  desired  po- 
sition, and  raised  to  the  stage  level  by  hydraulic 
power.  This  stage  was  the  invention  of  the  As- 
phaiia Company  of  Berlin,  and  has  been  installed 
in  the  Hofburg  Theatre  in  Vienna  and  the  Wies- 
baden Theatre,  at  Wiesbaden,  Germany.  In  both 
of  these  theatres  this  device  is  most  remarkable, 
the  working  portion  of  the  stage  being  divided 
into  nine  platforms  mounted  on  hydraulic  rams, 
which  may  not  only  descend  to  a  sub-stage  but 
there  be  interchanged. 

It  is  in  the  Paris  Opera  House  and  the  Deutche 
Opera  House  in  Charlottenburg,  Berlin,  that  the 


The    Revolving    Stage 


72 


74         MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

Reform  Stage  has  reached  its  culminating  perfec- 
tion. Here  these  mammoth  stages  are  so  perfect 
mechanically  that  they  may  be  rolled  into  posi- 
tion by  one  man,  and  frequently  the  scene  changes 
are  made  with  extreme  realism  in  full  view  of 
the  audience.  For  instance,  when  a  garden  scene 
follows  an  interior  setting,  the  two  are  arranged 
in  sequence  and  roll  by  as  the  actors  are  passing 
from  the  house  into  the  garden.  Originally  built 
for  hydraulic  power,  the  first  adopted  substitute 
for  hand  power,  these  devices  may  now  be  oper- 
ated by  electricity. 
The  Horizon.  While  some  of  the  newer  German  theatres 
still  retain  the  loft  space  above  the  stage  in  which 
to  hoist  scenery,  they  have  in  addition  a  sus- 
pended horizon  shaped  like  a  quarter-sphere  shell, 
also  the  invention  of  Herr  Brandt.  It  curves 
outward  at  the  top  and  sides,  and  upon  its  sur- 
face a  stereopticon,  mounted  on  a  bridge  above 
and  inside  the  proscenium  opening,  projects  real- 
istic cloud  effects,  either  stationary  or  moving. 
The  new  Deutche  Opera  House  at  Charlotten- 
burg,  Berlin,  has  this  device  mounted  on  a  travel- 
ing crane,  worked  by  electricity  from  a  cab  fixed 
on  the  traveler.  The  rear  wall  of  the  Dresden 
Theatre,  too,  has  been  built  into  a  permanent 
horizon  of  this  type,  on  the  plan  of  a  true  ellipse, 
extending  high  above  the  proscenium. 

There  is  every  evidence  that  the  extra  high 
scene  loft,  which  has  ever  been  a  troublesome 
architectural  feature,  may  be  eliminated  in  thev 


THE  STAGE  SECTION  75 

future  American  theatre  as  hanging  room  for 
scenery.  The  old  style  painted  scenery  with  its 
"flats,"  "wings"  and  ugly  "sky  borders,"  is  im- 
possible for  artistic  use,  and  is  gradually  giving 
way  to  modern  plastic  scenery,  built  up  "in  the 
round"  to  indicate  better  the  true  perspective.  In 
most  fine  productions  actual  objects  are  now  em- 
ployed on  the  stage  in  place  of  painted  "proper- 
ties." 

The  elimination  of  the  extreme  upper  region  Elimination  of 
of  the  stage  and  the  establishment  of  a  sky-dome  Loft, 
would  truly  comport  with  the  presentation  of 
natural  appearing  plastic  scenery  and  permit  a 
texture  of  reflected  light  from  the  cupola-horizon 
to  give  the  effect  of  infinite  distance.  It  has 
been  suggested  by  Professor  Wallace  C.  Sabine, 
of  Harvard  University,  a  recognized  authority  on 
acoustics,  that  this  quarter-sphere  form  of  hori- 
zon is  neither  necessary  from  the  standpoint  of 
illumination  nor  desirable  from  the  standpoint  of 
acoustics.  He  believes  that  a  flatter  back  with  a 
sharper  curvature  above  and  at  the  sides  would 
be  preferable  for  the  purposes  of  both  acoustics 
and  utility. 

A  stage  innovation  of  the  advanced  theatre 
that  may  be  readily  adopted  in  American  theatres 
with  no  appreciable  loss  of  space  is  the  inner  ad- 
justable proscenium  arch.  This  plainly  designed 
frame  is  placed  four  or  five  feet  inside  the  per- 
manent arch  and  by  an  ingenious  arrangement 
is  made  to  contract  or  expand  to  accommodate 


76         MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

the  scene  on  the  stage.  Thus  a  ballroom  can 
use  the  full  expanse  of  the  stage,  and  a  bedroom 
a  much  smaller  part  to  indicate  the  true  size  of  a 
bedroom  and  thereby  cause  the  actors'  figures  to 
appear  natural  in  stature.  This  inner  opening 
may  be  treated  in  neutral  colors  to  harmonize 
both  with  the  scene  presented  on  the  stage  and  the 
permanent  decorations  of  the  auditorium. 

For  the  information  of  those  who  contem- 
plate erecting  theatres  not  intended  for  play  pro- 
ductions but  for  the  temporary  housing  of  travel- 
ing attractions  American  stages  are  at  present 
equipped  with  the  scenery  described  in  the  table 
at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

EXISTING   AMERICAN    STAGES. 

stad"ced  ^he  American  stage   floor  is   raised  about   3 

Aprons.  feef-  g  jncries  above  the  front  section  of  the  audi- 

torium floor,  so  as  to  fix  the  stage  level  just  be- 
low the  eyes  of  the  people  seated  in  the  first  rows. 
The  newer  types  of  theatres  are  built  with 
straight  narrow  stage  projections  instead  of  old- 
fashioned  stage  aprons.  The  average  depth  of 
the  stage  is  about  equal  to  the  width  of  its  pros- 
cenium opening.  The  dressing  rooms  are  usually 
arranged  on  both  sides  of  the  stage  behind  fire- 
proof walls. 

American  stages  usually  have  a  storage  space 
for  properties,  a  separate  workroom  for  the  car- 
penter and  electrician,  and  occasionally  a  room 
for  the  costumer.     Many  of  the  larger  theatres 


THE  STAGE  SECTION  77 

include  a  scene  dock  for  the  storage  of  scenery 
that  is  not  in  use.  In  theatres  where  large  spec- 
tacles are  presented  there  are  also  extra  lighting 
galleries  for  the  installation  of  calcium  lights.  Be- 
sides doors  for  actors  and  employes  a  large  scen- 
ery door  four  or  five  feet  wide  and  as  high  as  the 
underside  of  the  fly  gallery  is  installed  to  admit 
scenery  carried  on  end.  This  large  scene  door 
is  often  made  in  two  sections,  the  upper  section 
overlapping  the  under  one  to  prevent  rain  from 
beating  in  on  the  stage. 

The  front  curtain  in  most  American  theatres   Proscenium 

Curtain. 

is  arranged  to  rise  without  rolling.  The  writer 
favors  a  front  curtain  that  parts  in  the  middle 
and  loops  upward  on  either  side  as  it  is  being 
hoisted  to  those  now  in  general  use.  When  the 
ordinary  curtain  is  being  hoisted  it  shows  the 
feet  of  the  actors  first,  and  is  therefore  inelegant 
and  inartistic,  unless  the  performance  be  a  bur- 
lesque show.  Aside  from  the  regular  front  cur- 
tain there  is  provided  for  fire  safety  an  asbestos 
curtain  to  cover  the  stage  opening. 

The  section  of  the  stage  seen  through  the  pro-  |**geer 
scenium  opening  is  called  the  stage  proper,  and  is 
sub-divided  into  three  divisions;  the  "center  of 
the  stage,"  the  "prompt  side,"  and  the  "opposite" 
or  "O.P.  side."  The  entire  stage  mechanism  is 
operated  from  the  "prompt  side." 

Each  side  of  the  stage  for  its  full  depth  is 
figuratively  divided  into  "entrances,"  the  first  of 
which  is  termed  the  "the  first  prompt  entrance," 


78  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

on  the  prompt  side,  and  "first  O.P.  entrance/' 
on  the  opposite  side.  These  appellations  hold 
good  for  the  entire  height  of  the  stage. 

The  Files.  The  section  of  the  stage  above  the  proscenium 

arch  is  termed  "the  flies/'  or  fly  loft.  Here  hang 
the  borders,  those  in  use  being  exposed,  while 
the  others  are  hauled  out  of  sight  by  means  of 
pulleys  rigged  in  the  loft,  together  with  the  other 
scenery  not  employed  on  the  stage. 

On  both  sides  of  this  loft  space  are  the  fly 
galleries,  which  are  equipped  with  apparatus  for 
manipulating  scenery  and  other  devices.  This 
fly  gallery  is  usually  constructed  about  forty  feet 
in  height  so  as  to  store  properly  all  the  hoisted 
scenery  not  in  use,  and  its  face  should  be  from 
six  to  ten  feet  back  from  the  sides  of  the  pros- 
cenium opening  to  provide  room  for  hanging 
drops  or  borders. 

Gridiron.  The  gridiron  is  another   feature  of   this  loft 

space.  It  is  an  open-latticed  platform  consisting 
of  slats  set  three  or  four  inches  apart,  through 
which  the  hanging  scenery  may  freely  pass  sus- 
pended on  three  sets  of  lines.  If  the  drops  be 
over  forty-five  feet  in  width  four  sets  of  lines 
are  advisable  The  gridiron  may  be  supported 
on  steel  girders  or  suspended  from  the  roof 
trusses  and  should  b$  strong  enough  to  support 
men  walking  on  it.  Access  to  the  fly  galleries 
and  gridiron  should  be  by  means  of  steel  ladders 
or  a  fire-proof  stairway  placed  in  some  out-of- 
the-way  corner.    A  few  new  theatres  in  America 


THE  STAGE  SECTION  79 

operate  the  scenery  from  the  stage  level,  without 
the  use  of  the  fly  galleries,  and  thus  obviate  the 
necessity  of  men  working  in  the  super-heated  at- 
mosphere of  the  sky  loft. 

SCENERY. 

The  scenic  equipment  for  the  usual  American 
theatre  is  given  in  the  tabulated  list  that  follows. 

Excluded  from  this  list  are  the  front  pieces  Tormentors 
usually  termed  "the  drapery/'  "proscenium"  and  Draperies 
"working  borders''  and  "tormentor  wings,"  all  of  tageous. 
which  are  usually  out  of  keeping  with  appropriate 
stage  scenery.  The  proscenium  opening  is  intended 
to  represent  an  imaginary  fourth  wall  of  the  stage, 
through  which  the  audience  is  privileged  to  view 
the  performance.  If  the  stage  presents  a  forest 
scene,  to  preserve  this  illusion  it  should  be  deco- 
rated only  with  forest  scenery;  if  an  interior, 
only  with  scenery  appropriate  to  such  a  setting. 
Scenery  "tormentors"  and  "grand  draperies"  are 
foreign  to  nearly  every  scene  presented  on  the 
stage  and  only  serve  to  disillusion  the  spectator. 
The  installation  of  an  inner  proscenium  arch 
would  effectively  remedy  this  display  of  extrane- 
ous scenic  drapings. 

The  floor  of  the  stage  is  usually  covered  with  a 
painted  canvas  ground-cloth  to  correspond  in  tone 
with  the  scene  on  the  stage.  Economy  may  often 
be  effected  by  painting  the  ground-cloth  a  different 
color  on  each  side. 

The  usual  American  stock  settings  are  made 


80 


'Drops  in 
One." 


MODERN  'THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

in  from  eight  to  sixteen  pieces,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  stage  to  be  dressed.  Modern  interiors 
are  built  about  16  feet  high  and  each  wing  about 
5  feet  9  inches  wide.  Profiled  doors  are  prefer- 
ably used  instead  of  old-fashioned  flapping  can- 
vas doors. 

The  "Drops  in  One,"  consisting  of  the  picture 
sheet,  conservatory,  olio  and  street  scene,  are 
made  a  trifle  wider  than  the  proscenium  opening. 
The  object  of  "Drops  in  One,"  placed  five  or  six 
feet  behind  the  curtain  line,  is  to  allow  the  play 
to  proceed  without  interruption  in  front  of  the 
drop  while  new  scenery  is  being  placed  behind  it. 


Grand    Entrance    Stairways,    German    Theatre,    Vienna 


THE  STAGE  SECTION 


81 


AVERAGE      SCENERY      EQUIPMENT— LOCATION 
AND  PLACING. 


Front  Pieces. 
Asbestos    Curtain. 
Act  Drop  Curtain. 
Conservatory    Drop. 
Olio. 
Street. 

Palace    Interior. 
Back  Drop. 
Cut  Drop. 
Arched  Borders. 
Profile  Wings  and  Flippers. 
Leg  Drops  (instead  of 

Borders  or  Wings. 
Balustrades. 

Light  and  Dark  Fancy 
Interiors. 

Center  Arch  Piece. 
Arched  Piece  with  Double 

Doors. 
Bay  Wing. 
Door  Wings. 
Jogs. 
Wings,  including  one  with 

fireplace  panel. 
Set  Fancy  Backings. 
Hanging   Fancy   Backing. 
Borders  or  Ceiling. 
Practical  Fireplace. 
Fireplace    Backings. 

Plain  Chamber  Interior. 
Arched  Piece. 
Wings,  including  one  with 

fireplace  panel. 
Door  Wings. 
Window   Wing. 
Bay  Window. 


Jogs. 

Set    Backings. 
Hanging  Backing. 
Borders  or  Ceiling. 
Practical  Fireplace. 

Wood    Interior. 

Light  Wood  Drop. 

Cut  Wood  Drops. 

6  Profile  Wood  Wings  with 

Flippers. 
3   Foliage  Borders. 
Foliage  Leg  Drops. 
Set   House    (with   practical 

door  and  window). 
Porch. 

Platform  and  Steps. 
Rustic  Cottage. 
Cut  Tree  Tap. 
Profile  Set  Tree. 
Garden  Drop. 
Profile  Statues. 
Profile  Vases. . 
Rocky  Pass  Drop. 
Horizon   Drop. 

Kitchen  Interior. 

Window   Wings. 

Window  Pieces. 

Door  Wings. 

Wings,    including   one   with 

fireplace  panels. 
Jogs. 

Set  Kitchen  Backings. 
Borders. 

Practical  Fireplace. 
Prison  Interior  painted   on 

back    Kitchen    interior. 


fa 


l=* 


33  .—~'\ 


v\ 


x 


82 


CHAPTER  VI. 


LIGHTING. 


HIGH    standard    of    excellence    has   been  Concealed 

Indirect 


r\  reached  in  theatre  lighting  throughout  the  Lighting, 
world,  but  German  progress  in  this  field 
has  been  equal  to  Teutonic  proficiency  in  other 
phases  of  theatre  construction.  It  is  now  possi- 
ble by  the  aid  of  large  tubular  incandescent  lamps 
imported  from  Europe  to  illuminate  effectively 
a  theatre  auditorium  by  reflected  light  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  source  of  illumination  is  un- 
noticeable.  These  tubes  are  made  several  inches 
in  diameter  so  as  to  avoid  overheating,  and  are 
about  twelve  inches  in  length,  with  half  their  in- 
terior diameter  silvered  on  the  inside  to  serve  as 
reflectors. 

This  inside  silvering  prevents  any  accumula- 
tion of  dust  on  the  reflector  surface,  and  if  these 
lights  are  installed  closely  together  behind  the 
lower  cornice  of  a  well  rounded  ceiling  cove,  the 
lights  diffuse  a  continuous  soft,  warm  glow,  en- 
tirely free  from  the  spotty  effects  produced  by 
common  incandescent  bulbs.  To  the  ordinary  ob- 
server the  source  of  light  is  completely  hidden, 
for  nothing  is  visible  but  a  continuously  illumi- 
nated cove  that  might  be  mistaken  for  brilliant 
decoration.  With  a  regulation  "dimmer"  appa- 
ratus these  self -reflecting  tubes  give  any  desired 
degree  of  illumination. 


83 


84 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Light  Under 
the  Balcony 


Illuminated 

Balcony 

Steps. 


Vacant  Seats 
Lighted. 


There  is  no  good  reason  why  this  same  con- 
cealed lighting  effect  should  not  be  carried  out  in 
all  the  public  departments  of  the  theatre,  thereby 
lessening  the  cost  of  fixtures.  Exposed  fixtures, 
even  the  so-called  indirect  sort,  are  an  unsightly 
nuisance  and  they  gather  dust,  which  gives  off  an 
offensive  odor  when  heated.  Reflected  light  intro- 
duces no  shadows  and  presents  a  far  more  artis- 
tic and  restful  effect  than  glaring  lights  of  any 
kind. 

The  space  underneath  the  balcony  could  be 
illuminated  by  reflected  light  through  flush,  trans- 
lucent glass  panels,  thus  avoiding  exposed  fixtures. 
The  Rialto  Theatre  in  New  York,  a  palatial  pic- 
ture house  recently  opened,  has  a  similar  effect 
arranged  in  a  most  pleasing  manner.  The  lights 
are  automatically  changed  at  timed  intervals  from 
pale  blue  to  soft  rose  and  vice  versa.  This  auto- 
matic change  of  light  easily  may  be  introduced 
throughout  the  auditorium  by  the  installation  of 
parallel  rows  of  differently  colored  tubes. 

Reflected  lights,  red  or  green,  showing  through 
flush  glass  panels  set  in  the  risers  of  all  balcony 
aisle  steps,  should  be  introduced  in  every  theatre 
to  prevent  patrons  from  stumbling  in  the  dark. 

Another  useful  innovation  that  might  be  em- 
ployed in  motion  picture  theatres  is  the  installa- 
tion of  tiny  red  or  green  bulbs,  mortised  in  the 
top  of  the  chair  backs,  which  are  lighted  by  the 
tipping  of  the  empty  seat  and  thereby  indicate 
to  the  ushers  vacant  chairs. 


LIGHTING  85 

EXTERIOR  LIGHTING. 

There  are  so  many  modes  of  exterior  lighting 
and  so  many  new  devices  constantly  being  intro- 
duced that  one  hesitates  to  recommend  any  par- 
ticular kind.  Here,  too,  the  writer,  a  confirmed 
antagonist  to  glaring  lights,  would  suggest  some 
form  of  indirect  lighting.  This  should  be  either 
by  simple  reflection  or  by  brilliant  reflection 
through  colored,  translucent  or  cathedral  glass, 
for  even  the  outline  of  lighted  bulbs  showing 
through  the  glass  is  inartistic.  A  brightly  illu- 
minated window  extending  the  entire  height 
between  pilasters  situated  on  either  side  of  the 
entrance,  and  lighted  by  reflected  light  through 
colored  glass,  would  be  an  effective  beacon  for  a 
picture  theatre. 

STAGE  LIGHTING. 

Great  advancement  has  also  been  made  in  the  Location  of 
methods  and  principles  of  stage  lighting.  Even 
the  location  of  the  operator  regulating  the  stage 
lighting  has  been  changed  in  the  advanced  Euro- 
pean theatres.  In  these  theatres  the  light  switch- 
board is  underneath  the  stage  apron,  adjacent  to 
the  orchestra  well.  From  that  point  the  operator, 
by  lifting  a  small  trap  similar  to  the  old-fashioned 
prompter's  traps,  may  view  perfectly  his  light 
effects  and  control  them. 

Many  theatres  depend  for  their  lighting  upon   storage 
storage   batteries,   because   a   steadier   light   and 
more  realistic  effects  may  be  obtained  in  this  man- 


Switchboard. 


Lighting. 


86 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Fortuny 
System. 


Footlights 
Abandoned. 


ner.  These,  however,  are  generally  used  only  in 
ordinary  theatres  for  reserve  or  emergency  pur- 
poses. 

An  Italian  painter  named  Fortuny  has  invented 
a  system  of  indirect  stage  lighting  that  has  met 
with  such  success  that  it  probably  will  be  uni- 
versally adopted.  In  this  system  the  light  is  fur- 
nished by  powerful  lamps,  stationed  on  the  re- 
verse side  of  the  hanging  borders,  and  reflected 
from  variously  colored  silk  banners,  whose  posi- 
tion is  changeable,  placed  behind  these  borders 
These  indirect  rays  give  a  fuller  and  softer  light 
and  have  the  advantage  successfully  of  dissolv- 
ing or  mixing  colors.  This  device  is  also  em- 
ployed to  illuminate  without  shadows  the  cano- 
pied horizon,  to  which  allusion  Has  already  been 
made.  This  innovation  provides  atmospheric  en- 
veloping light,  as  contrasted  with  the  old-fash- 
ioned direct  light  that  struck  objects  on  the  stage 
and  projected  their  shadows  beyond. 

There  can  also  be  no  doubt  that  illumination 
mainly  by  footlights  is  a  passing  phase  in  the  ad- 
vanced theatre.  Where  footlights  exist  it  is  bet- 
ter to  arrange  three  horizontal  continuous  rows 
of  tubular  incandescent  lamps  of  red,  white  and 
blue,  similar  to  those  described  for  auditorium 
cove  lighting,  than  to  employ  the  ordinary  tri- 
colored  incandescent  bulbs  in  common  use. 

The  method  of  projecting  light  from  above, 
and  from  reflected  side-lights,  is  now  used  in  ad- 
vanced theatres  to  replace  the  glaring  footlights. 


LIGHTING  87 


In  the  same  manner,  stereopticons  are  employed  to 
introduce  storm  or  cloud  effects  on  the  canopied 
horizon,  with  realistic  lightning  flashes  if  desired. 
In  most  American  theatres  40-watt  lamps  are 
used  for  footlights,  arranged  with  eight  lamps  to 
the  foot,  and  colored  red,  white  and  blue  in  regu- 
lar sequences  of  these  colors,  to  produce  single  or 
combination  effects.  The  footlight  trough  should 
be  from  two  to  three  feet  wide,  and  the  exposed 
surface  should  be  painted  a  dull  black  or  dark 
green,  so  as  not  to  reflect  the  glare  of  the  foot- 
lights up  into  the  balcony. 

Each  theatre  in  America  also  has  about  six 
rows  of  border  lights,  encased  in  reversed  gal- 
vanized iron  troughs  suspended  by  extension 
chains,  and  set  six  or  seven  feet  apart.  The  bor- 
der lights  for  illuminating  the  stage  should  be  at 
least  two  feet  longer  than  the  proscenium  open- 
ing, the  first  row  being  about  two  feet  shorter  than 
that  opening.  Border  lights  are  also  arranged  in 
three  colors. 

Every  stage  should  be  provided  with  incandes- 
cent stage  sockets  in  each  entrance,  right  and 
left,  and  with  several  conveniently  distributed 
arc  pockets.  There  should  also  be  a  sufficient 
supply  of  bunch-lights  and  strip-lights,  with  con- 
nections, all  arranged  with  interchangeable 
sockets  for  the  introduction  of  colored  bulbs. 

For  the  sake  of  increased  protection  from  fire 
it  is  better  to  install  all  electric  wiring  according 
to  the  code  prescribed  by  the  National  Board  ©f 


Border 
Lights. 


88 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Fire  Underwriters,  useful  extracts   from  which 
are  here  included : 

NATIONAL    BOARD    OF    FIRE    UNDERWRITERS 
ELECTRIC  CODE. 


Service. 


Stage. 


Footlights. 


All  wiring,  apparatus,  etc.,  not  specifically  covered  by 
special  rules  herein^given  must  conform  to  the  standard 
rules  and  requirements  of  the  National  Electrical  Code, 
and  the  term  "Theatre"  shall  mean  a  building  or  that  part 
of  a  building  regularly  or  frequently  used  for  dramatic, 
operatic,  moving  picture  or  other  performances  or  shows, 
or  which  has  a  stage  for  such  performances  used  with 
scenery  or  other  stage  appliances. 

Where  supply  may  be  obtained  from  two  separate  street 
mains,  two  separate  and  distinct  services  must  be  in- 
stalled, one  service  to  be  of  sufficient  capacity  to  supply 
current  for  the  entire  equipment  of  theatre,  while  the 
other  service  must  be  at  least  of  sufficient  capacity  to  sup- 
ply current  for  all  emergency  lights,  where  supply  feed 
for  emergency  lights  must  be  taken  from  a  point  on  the 
street  side  of  main  service  fuses.  By  "emergency  lights" 
are  meant  exit  lights  and  all  lights  in  lobbies,  stairways, 
corridors  and  other  portions  of  theatres  to  which  the  pub- 
lic have  access,  which  are  normally  kept  lighted  during 
the   performance. 

Where  source  of  supply  is  an  isolated  plant  within  the 
building,  an  auxiliary  service  of  at  least  sufficient  capacity 
to  supply  all  emergency  lights  must  be  installed  from 
some  outside  source,  or  a  suitable  storage  battery  within 
the  premises  may  be  considered  the  equivalent  of  such 
service. 

All  permanent  construction  on  stage  side  of  proscenium 
wall,  except  as  hereinafter  provided,  must  be  approved 
conduit  or  armored  cable. 

Must  be  wired  in  approved  conduit  or  armored  cable, 
each  lamp  receptacle  being  inclosed  with  an  approved  out- 
let box,  or  the  lamp  receptacles  may  be  mounted  in  an  iron 
or  steel  box,  metal  to  be  of  a  thickness  not  less  than  No.  20 
U.S.  sheet  metal  gauge,  treated  to  prevent  oxidization,  so 
constructed  as  to  inclose  all  the  wires.  Wires  to  be 
soldered  to  lugs  of  receptacles. 


LIGHTING 


Borders  and 
Proscenium 
Lights. 


Must  be  so  wired  that  no  set  of  lamps  requiring  more 
than  1,320  watts  nor  more  than  24  receptacles  shall  be 
dependent  upon  one  cut-out. 

1.  Must  be  constructed  of  steel  to  a  thickness  not  less 
than  No.  20  U.S.  sheet  metal  gauge,  treated  to  prevent 
oxidization,  be  suitably  stayed  and  supported,  and  so  de- 
signed that  flanges  of  reflectors  will  protect  lamps. 

2.  Must  be  so  wired  that  no  set  of  lamps  requiring  more 
than  1,320  watts  nor  more  than  24  receptacles  shall  be  de- 
pendent upon  one  cut-out. 

3.  Must  be  wired  in  approved  conduit  or  armored  cable, 
each  lamp  receptacle  to  be  inclosed  within  an  approved  out- 
let box,  or  the  lamp  receptacle  may  be  mounted  in  an  iron 
or  steel  box,  metal  to  be  of  a  thickness  not  less  than  No. 
20  U.S.  sheet  metal  gauge,  treated  to  prevent  oxidization, 
so  constructed  as  to  inclose  all  wires.  Wires  to  be  soldered 
to  lugs  of  receptacles. 

4.  Must  be  provided  with  suitable  guards  to  prevent 
scenery  or  other  combustible  material  coming  in  contact 
with   lamps. 

5.  Cables  for  borders  must  be  of  approved  type  and 
suitably  supported;  conduit  construction  must  be  used 
from  switchboard  to  point  where  cables  must  be  flexible 
to  permit  of  the  raising  and  lowering  of  border. 

6.  For  the  wiring  of  the  border  proper  wire  with   ap-  < 
proved  slow-burning  insulation  must  be  used. 

7.  Borders  must  be  suitably  suspended,  and  if  a  wire 
rope  is  used  same  must  be  insulated  by  at  least  one  strain 
insulator  inserted  at  the  border. 

Must  be  of  approved  type,  controlled  from  switchboard, 
each  receptacle  to  be  of  not  less  than  35-ampere  rating  for 
arc  lamps  nor  15-ampere  rating  for  incandescent  lamps  and 
each  receptacle  to  be  wired  to  its  full  capacity.  Arc  pock- 
ets to  be  wired  with  wire  not  smaller  than  No.  6  B.  &  S. 
gauge  and  incandescent  pockets  with  not  less  than  No.  12 
B.  &  S.  gauge. 

Plugs    for   arcs   and   incandescent  pockets   must  not  be        * 
interchangeable. 

Where  lamps  are  installed  in  scene  docks  they  must  be    Scene  Docks, 
so  located  and  installed  that  they  will  not  be  liable  to  me- 
chanical injury. 

Must  be  of  ironclad  type  and  installed  so  as  to  conform 
to  the  requirements  of  the  National  Electrical  Code. 


Stage  and 

Gallery 

Pockets. 


Curtain 
Motors. 


90 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Control  for 
Stage  Flues. 


Dressing 
Rooms. 


Portable 
Equipment. 


In  cases  where  dampers  are  released  by  an  electric  device, 
the  electric  circuit  operating  same  must  be  normally  closed. 

Magnet  operating  damper  must  be  wound  to  take  full 
voltage  of  circuit  by  which  it  is  supplied,  using  no  resist- 
ance device,  and  must  not  heat  more  than  normal  for  ap- 
paratus of  similar  construction.  It  must  be  located  in  the 
loft  above  the  scenery,  and  be  installed  in  a  suitable  iron 
box  with  a  tight,  self-closing  door. 

Such  dampers  must  be  controlled  by  at  least  two  stand- 
ard, single  pole  switches  mounted  within  approved  iron 
boxes  provided  with  self-closing  doors  without  lock  or 
latch,  and  located,  one  at  the  electrician's  station  and 
others  as  designated  by  the  inspection  department  having 
jurisdiction. 

Must  be  wired  in  approved  conduit  or  armored  cable. 
All  pendent  lights  must  be  equipped  with  approved  rein- 
forced cord,  armored  cable  or  steel  armored  flexible  cord. 

All  lamps  must  be  provided  with  approved  guards. 

Arc  lamps  used  for  stage  effects  must  conform  to  the 
following  requirements : 

1.  Must  be  constructed  entirely  of  metal  except  where 
the  use  of  approved  insulating  material  is  necessary. 

2.  Must  be  substantially  constructed,  and  so  designed  as 
to  provide  for  proper  ventilation,  and  to  prevent  sparks 
being  emitted  from  lamps  when  same  are  in  operation, 
and  mica  must  be  used  for  frame  insulation. 

3.  Front  opening  must  be  provided  with  a  self-closing 
hinged  door  frame,  in  which  wire  gauze  or  glass  must  be 
inserted,  except  in  the  case  of  lens  lamps,  where  the  front 
may  be  stationary,  and  a  solid  door  be  provided  on  back  or 
side. 

4.  Must  be  so  constructed  that  neither  carbons  nor  live 
parts  will  be  brought  into  contact  with  metal  of  hood  dur- 
ing operation,  and  arc  lamp  frames  and  standards  must 
be  so  installed  and  protected  as  to  prevent  the  liability  of 
their  being  grounded. 

5.  Switch  on  standard  must  be  so  constructed  that  acci- 
dental contact  with  any  live  portion  of  same  will  be  im- 
possible. 

6.  All  stranded  connections   in  lamp  and  at  switch  and  , 
rheostats  must  be  provided  with  approved  lugs. 

7.  Rheostats   must   be   plainly  marked   with   their   rated 


LIGHTING 


91 


capacity  in  volts  and  amperes,  and,  if  mounted  on  stand- 
ard, must  be  raised  to  a  height  of  at  least  3  inches  above 
floor.  Resistance  must  be  inclosed  in  a  substantial  and 
properly  ventilated  metal  case  which  affords  a  clearance 
of  at  least  1  inch  between  case  and  resistance  element. 

8.  A  competent  operator  must  be  in  charge  of  each  arc 

lamp,  except  that  one  operator  may  have  charge  of  two 

lamps  when  they  are  not  more  than  10  feet  apart,  and  are 

|  so  located  that  he  can  -properly  watch  and  care  for  both 

lamps. 

Must   be    substantially   constructed    of    metal    and   must    Bunches, 
not  contain  any  exposed  wiring. 

The  cable  feeding  same  must  be  bushed  in  an  approved 
manner  where  passing  through  the  metal,  and  must  be 
properly  secured  to  prevent  any  mechanical  strain  from 
coming  on  the  connection. 

Must  be  constructed  of  steel  of  a  thickness  not  less  than    Strips. 
No.  20  U.S.  sheet  metal  gauge,  treated  to  prevent  Oxidiza- 
tion, and   suitably  stayed  and  supported  and  so   designed 
that  flanges  will  protect  lamps. 

Cable  must  be  bushed  in  a  suitable  manner  where  pass- 
ing through  the  metal,  and  must  be  properly  secured  to 
prevent  serious  mechanical  strain  from  coming  on  the 
connections. 

Must  be  wired  in  approved  conduit  or  armored  cable, 
each  lamp  receptacle  being  inclosed  within  an  approved 
outlet  box,  or  the  lamp  receptacle  may  be  mounted  in  an 
iron  or  steel  box,  metal  to  be  of  a  thickness  not  less  than 
No.  20  U.S.  sheet  metal  gauge,  treated  to  prevent  oxidiza: 
tion,  so  constructed  as  to  inclose  all  wires.  Wires  to  be 
soldered  to  lugs  of  receptacles. 

Must  be  constructed  so  that  no  current  carrying  part  Portable 
will  be  exposed  and  each  receptacle  must  be  protected  by  Sluxge|ing 
approved  fuses  mounted  on  slate  or  marble  bases  and  in- 
closed in  a  fire-proof  cabinet  equipped  with  self-closing 
doors.  Each  receptacle  must  be  constructed  to  carry  30 
amperes  without  undue  heating,  and  the  bus-bars  must 
have  a  carrying  capacity  equivalent  to  the  current  required 
for  the  total  number  of  receptacles,  and  approved  lugs 
must  be  provided  for  the  connection  of  the  master  cable. 

Must  be  of  an  approved  type,  so  installed  that  the  "fe- 
male" part  of  plug  will  be  on  live  end  of  cable,  and  must 
be  so  constructed  that  tension  on  the  cable  will  not  cause 
serious  mechanical  strain  on  the  connections. 


Pin  Plug 
Conductors. 


92 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Portable 
Conductors. 


Scenery 
Lights. 


Festooned 
Lights. 


Electrical 
Effects. 


Flexible  conductors  used  from  receptacles  to  arc  lamps, 
bunches  and  other  portable  equipments  must  be  approved' 
stage  cable  except  that  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  a  stand 
lamp  under  conditions  where  conductors  are  not  liable  to 
severe  mechanical  injury  an  approved  reinforced  cord  may 
be  used,  provided  cut-out  designed  to  protect  same  is  not 
fused  over  six  amperes  capacity. 

Where  brackets  are  used  they  must  be  wired  entirely  on 
the  inside,  fixture  stem  must  come  through  the  back  of  the 
scenery,  and  end  of  stem  be  properly  bushed. 

Wiring  of  same  must  be  of  approved  type,  joints  to  be 
properly  made,  soldered  and  taped,  and  staggered  where 
practicable. 

Where  lamps  are  used  in  lanterns  or  similar  devices, 
approved  guards  must  be  employed. 

Where  devices  are  used  for  producing  special  effects 
such  as  lightning,  waterfalls,  etc.,  the  apparatus  must  be 
so  constructed  and  located  that  flames,  sparks,  etc.,  result- 
ing from  the  operation  cannot  come  in  contact  with  com- 
bustible material. 


93 


94 


CHAPTER  VII 

MOTION  PICTURE  THEATRES 

THE  most  recently  developed  phase  of  the 
theatres  is  the  photoplayhouse,  devoted  to 
the  silent  drama.  Enthusiasts  claim  that 
the  daily  attendance  at  these  theatres  is  ten  mill- 
ions of  people.  Sceptics  believe  that  not  more 
than  three  millions  form  the  daily  attendance,  but 
whether  the  disputed  daily  attendance  be  ten  per 
cent  of  the  total  population  of  the  United  States 
or  only  three  and  one-third  per  cent/its  influence 
as  a  social  factor  and  a  popular  form  of  entertain- 
ment is  most  potent. 

The  remarkable  growth  of  the  motion  picture   Growth  of 

Motion 

theatre  in  the  last  fifteen  years  and  its  constantly   Picture 

J  *      Theatres. 

increasing  popularity  have  caused  many  changes 
in  the  business  of  the  regular  theatre.  The  aim 
of  the  photoplayhouse  is  to  present  motion  pic- 
tures in  an  attractive  manner  to  a  discriminating 
public,  and  the  better  to  serve  this  purpose  count- 
less numbers  of  old  theatres  have  been  remodeled 
and  many  buildings  erected. 

European  countries — countries  in  Asia,  Africa, 
Australia,  South  America,  Canada  and  Mexico, 
too,  are  seized  with  this  same  popular  fever  for 
the  cinema.  Universal  success  has  crowned  the 
photo  stage.  England,  Germany  and  Russia  oc- 
casionally surpass  America  in  the  construction 
of  their  cinematograph  theatres,  not  in  size  per- 

95 


96 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


An  Ingenious 
Plan. 


The  Design 
and  Plan. 


haps,  but  in  their  superior  appointments  and  bet- 
ter arrangements  for  comfort. 

An  enterprising  Russian  exhibitor  named 
Khanjonkoff,  anxious  to  increase  the  seating  ca- 
pacity of  a  photoplayhouse  he  was  erecting  in  a 
thickly  populated  section  of  Moscow,  devised  an 
ingenious  plan  of  auditorium,  combining  three 
floors  facing  one  screen.  He  constructed  the 
house  with  a  pit  floor  in  the  basement  beneath 
the  street  for  the  cheaper  patrons.  On  this  floor 
he  placed  a  large  orchestra  well  directly  in  front 
of  the  screen,  with  the  vacant  space  above  it  ex-  j 
tending  upward  past  the  main  floor  and  balcony. 

This  arrangement  permitted  the  utilization  of 
nearly  the  entire  depth  of  each  floor  for  seating. 
The  seats  on  the  basement  floor  began  at  the  edge 
of  the  orchestra  well  and  extended  back  to  the 
rear  wall  with  a  slightly  downward  pitch;  these 
patrons  being  compelled  to  look  upward  to  view  I 
the  screen.     The  main  floor  over  it  began  at  a 
point  just  above  the  fifth  row  in  the  pit,  and  in-i 
clined  upward  with  the  usual  ground  floor  slope 
as  it  receded  to  the  rear  wall.     The  seats  on  this  I 
floor  were  arranged  in  the  usual  manner.     The 
balcony  above  the  main  floor  began  at  a  point 
about  five  rows  back  from  the  beginning  point  of 
the  main  floor,  and  ascended  with  the  customary 
balcony  risers  to  the  rear  of  the  theatre. 

The  designing  of  photoplayhouses  in  America 
is  yet  in  an  experimental  stage.  Few  architects 
understand  or  attempt  to  learn  the  requirements 


MOTION  PICTURE  THEATRES     .  97 

of  this  special  type  of  building.  The  first  prob- 
lem to  be  solved  when  planning  a  theatre  of  this 
class  is  its  size  in  relation  to  its  location.  Or-  ■ 
dinarily  a  photoplayhouse  must  be  located  so  as 
to  attract  the  greatest  number  of  patrons  from 
the  immediate  neighborhood,  unless,  of  course,  a 
large  photoplayhouse  for  general  patronage  be 
contemplated.  In  this  case  a  central  site  on  a 
busy  thoroughfare  should  be  chosen. 

Most  cities  have  definite  laws  dividing  motion   Jjieatre 

°  Classification. 

picture  theatres  into  several  distinct  classes.  Us- 
ually if  the  house  has  a  capacity  of  less  than  300 
persons  ample  frontage  on  the  street,  without  al- 
leys on  either  side,  is  considered  sufficient.  Should 
the  seating  capacity  be  between  300  and  1000, 
there  must  be  for  less  than  600  seats  alleys  at 
least  five  feet  wide  on  each  side  of  the  auditorium, 
with  six  inches  in  width  added  for  every  100 
seats  until  1000  is  reached.  These  alleys  must 
empty  into  a  street  either  at  the  front  or  rear  of 
the  building. 

In  some  cities  the  passage  may  begin  at  the   gxit 

Jr  3SS3gCS. 

exits  and  continue  to  the  street  or  alley,  except 
where  the  theatre  has  a  balcony,  in  which  case 
the  alley  must  extend  the  entire  length  of  the 
auditorium  so  as  to  connect  with  the  balcony  at  its 
highest  and  lowest  points.  If  a  passage  be  neces- 
sary beneath  the  stage  or  any. other  portion  of  the 
building  a  fireproof  passage  can  usually  be  sub- 
stituted for  an  open  one.  If  the  theatre  seats 
more  than  1000  persons  it  must  have,  in  addition 


98         MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

to  the  street  frontage,  alleys  not  less  than  ten  feet 
wide  on  each  side  of  the  auditorium. 

If  a  popular-priced  photoplay  house  on  a  grand 
scale  is  being  planned  for  the  patronage  of  the 
masses  it  should  be  palatial  in  design,  of  colossal 
dimensions,  and  arranged  to  seat  the  greatest  pos- 
sible number  of  people.  If  a  medium-sized 
neighborhood  photoplayhouse  be  desired  it  should 
be  located  on  the  popular  promenade  in  such  a 
section  and  planned  for  a  capacity  of  from  1200 
to  1400  persons.  The  smaller  theatres  are  rarely 
built  at  the  present  time  except  in  local  neighbor- 
hoods where  the  anticipated  patronage  is  limited. 

HoSle0fDesired  After  it  has  been  decided  to  which  class  the 
proposed  house  belongs,  the  next  thing  to  be  con- 
sidered is  whether  it  would  be  a  good  investment 
to  utilize  some  of  the  front  space  for  stores,  of- 
fices, or  both.  Local  ordinances  should  be  care- 
fully studied  in  order  to  better  comprehend  their 
restrictions.  Where  there  be  an  opportunity  for 
decided  improvement  by  transgression  this  sub- 
ject should  be  taken  up  with  the  proper  authori- 
ties without  delay,  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
authoritative  consent  for  the  contemplated 
changes.  Much  good  may  result  from  persistent 
effort,  especially  where  justice  be  on  one's  side. 

Extbrior  Buildings  devoted  to  a  new  kind  of  enterprise 

Appearance.  t  . 

should  have  a  special  architectural  design  of  their 
own,  instead  of  being  mere  modifications  of  ex- 
isting types.  Such  ideas  of  originality  in  design 
have  not  yet  been  developed  in  this  country  in 


MOTION  PICTURE  THEATRES  99 

connection ,  with  the  motion  picture  theatre,  al- 
though in  these  days,  of  keen  competition  every 
resource  should  be  called  upon  to  improve  the 
character  of  the  house  and  its  program.  The 
more  appropriately  designed  house,  presenting  its 
pictures  in  the  more  artistic  or  unique  manner, 
and  treating  its  patrons  with  due  consideration 
and  politeness,  is  bound  to  have  greater  success 
than  its  competitor  who  continues  in  the  beaten 
path. 

The  decoration  of  the  motion  picture  audi  to-  interior 

Decoration. 

num  may  be  more  ornamental  than  that  of  an 
ordinary  theatre,  the  better  to  satisfy  a  more  gen- 
eral taste.  The  exposed  front  and  entrance  lobby 
should,  however,  be  the  most  striking  feature 
in  order  to  attract  the  attention  of  passers-by. 
For  the  same  reason  a  conspicuous  and  well  lo- 
cated ticket  booth  is  also  a  decided  advantage. 
Experience  has  taught  that  a  ticket  booth  resem- 
bling a  circular  kiosk,  placed  near  the  front  of  the 
outer  lobby,  is  the  most  practical. 

Each  photoplayhouse  should  have  its  own  in- 
dividual design,  expressing  as  nearly  as  possible 
the  purpose  of  the  building.  Suitable  and  genuine 
materials  should  be  employed  for  the  construction 
of  its  exterior,  and  not  spurious  imitations  of 
other  materials.  The  advertising  or  poster  space, 
if  possible,  should  be  incorporated  in  the  design, 
making  it  unnecessary  afterward  to  mar  the  com- 
plete effect  by  separate  signs  or  posters. 

Display  of  vulgar  taste  is  always  to  be  avoided, 


100  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

as  a  carefully  designed  photoplayhouse  is  bound 
to  draw  patronage.  Motion  picture  theatres,  un- 
like regulation  theatres,  are  too  often  degraded 
by  illy-designed  stock  theatre  fronts,  that  neither 
harmonize  with  nor  enhance  the  design  of  the 
building,  and  they  rarely  ever  save  money  for  the 
owner. 

Auditorium.  The  motion  picture  auditorium  presents  prac- 

tically the  same  problems  as  does  that  of  a  regu- 
lar theatre,  except  that  the  sight  lines  in  a  mo- 
tion picture  house  must  be  truer.  The  proscenium 
opening  must  be  wide  enough  to  admit  of  a  full 
view  of  the  screen  from  the  extreme  sides  of  the 
audience  hall,  and  the  spectators  in  the  last  row 
of  seats  underneath  the  balcony  must  be  able  to 
see  two  or  three  feet  above  the  top  of  the  screen. 
In  like  manner  those  in  the  last  rows  of  the  bal- 
cony must  have  a  full  view  of  the  screen  under- 
neath the  top  of  the  proscenium  opening. 

The  stage.  The  motion  picture  theatre,  whatever  its  form, 

requires  a  stage,  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
senting variety  or  musical  numbers  on  its  pro- 
gram when  desired,  but  to  obtain  when  the  stage 
is  darkened  a  shadow  box  effect  that  is  most  de- 
sirable. This  shadow  box  arrangement  affords 
relief  to  the  eye  by  placing  the  picture  farther 
from  the  spectator,  and  gives  added  depth  to  the 
picture  itself.  Aside  from  this,  it  permits  the 
display  of  pictures  in  a  fully  lighted  auditorium, 
provided  no  direct  rays  of  light  are  permitted  to 
reach  the  screen;  a  decided  advantage  in  picture 


MOTION  PICTURE  THEATRES  101 

presentation.  A  few  cities  foolishly  prohibit  the 
introduction  of  a  stage  in  a  motion  picture 
theatre. 

Complete  darkness,  so  common  in  motion  pic-   Darkness 

1  '  r  Undesirable. 

ture  auditoriums  in  this  country,  rarely  enhances 
the  effect  of  a  picture.  This  unnecessary  gloom 
never  pleases  the  audience  and  seriously  inter- 
feres with  the  prompt  seating  of  patrons.  The 
showing  of  a  comedy  picture  is  assuredly  better 
in  a  lighted  auditorium  than  in  a  darkened  room. 
Laughter  is  contagious,  and  when  one  sees  his 
neighbor  in  paroxysms  of  laughter  he  laughs,  too. 
Subdued  light  has  a  much  less  irritating  effect  on 
the  eyes  than  complete  darkness  relieved  only  by 
reflected  light  from  the  screen,  and  a  lesser  degree 
of  darkness  is  already  one  of  the  insistent  public 
demands. 

Managers  now  realize  that  the  soft  amber  and 
roSe  tones  of  illumination  employed  in  many 
higher  class  motion  picture  theatres  add  greatly 
to  the  attractiveness  of  the  silent  drama,  and  pa- 
trons are  made  more  cheerful  and  have  become 
more  interested  in  the  productions  shown  on  the 
screen  since  the  introduction  of  partial  audito- 
rium lighting.  In  any  event,  it  is  certainly  wiser 
to  make  provision  that  will  permit  the  showing 
of  pictures  in  any  degree  of  light.  It  is  also  im- 
portant that  picture  theatres  have  dressing  rooms 
for  the  accommodation  of  artists  presenting  ad- 
ditional acts  on  their  program. 

The  seating  arrangement  presents  a  far  more 


102  MODERN  'THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

Seating.  serious  problem  in  a  motion  picture  theatre  than 

in  a  regulation  theatre.  In  the  latter  persons  aris- 
ing to  permit  the  passage  of  others  only  obstruct 
the  view  of  the  stage  for  a  moment,  which  is  not 
always  important,  as  one  can  usually  hear  the  dia- 
logue, and  continue  to  follow  the  thread  of  the 
story,  but  with  a  photoplay  the  same  obstruction 
effectively  breaks  the  continuity  of  thought  and 
if  continued  is  likely  to  ruin  one's  appreciation 
of  the  entire  play. 

The  agitation  for  a  law  limiting  the  number  ot 
continuous  chairs  in  a  motion  picture  theatre  row 
to  eight  seats,  instead  of  twelve,  thirteen  or  four- 
teen, because  of  this  constant  interference  with 
the  view,  is  not  without  reason,  considering  the 
present  insufficient  passage  room  between  rows. 
The  proper  amount  of  space  between  rows,  36 
inches  instead  of  32  inches,  would  permit  the  free 
passage  of  persons  without  the  necessity  of  any- 
one rising,  and  would  put  an  end  to  this  agitation 
that  threatens  real  loss  of  seating  space. 

GROUND    FLOOR   THEATRES. 

Legal  requirements,  as  well  as  site  limitations, 
often  radically  affect  the  plan  of  a  photoplay- 
house.  Several  states  prohibit  balconies  in  mo- 
tion picture  theatres.  In  such  states,  of  course, 
the  auditorium  must  be  confined  to  one  floor. 
There  are  other  cases  where  it  is  less  expensive 
to  plan  the  audience  hall  on  the  floor,  if  sufficient 
space  can  be  secured. 


MOTION  PICTURE  THEATRES  103 

Where  the  depth  of  the  premises  is  not  enough  Ij°^neath 
or  where  economy  of  space  is  desired,  ground-  theSeats- 
floor  picture  houses  may  be  planned  with  the  rear 
section  of  seats  sweeping  high,  like  modified  cir- 
cus seats.  Then  a  low  ceilinged  lobby  and  even 
shops,  if  necessary,  may  be  installed  beneath  the 
rear  section  of  seats,  as  suggested  in  the  plan 
displayed  at  the  close  of  this  chapter.  Refer- 
ence to  the  illustration  will  show  that  the  entrance 
should  be  through  ramped  tunnels  to  the  middle 
of  the  auditorium  with  access  to  the  rear  rows 
up  stepped  aisles  placed  alongside  each  tunnel. 
In  an  auditorium  thus  planned  the  height  of  the 
ceiling  at  the  rear  might  be  gradually  increased 
to  good  acoustical  advantage. 

If  singing  or  talking  acts  be  desired  as  part  of 
the  program,  considerable  thought  should  be 
given  to  acoustics  when  designing  long  narrow 
houses,  as  sound  propagation  is  usually  imperfect 
in  this  form  of  building.  Heavily  curved  ceilings, 
deep  recesses  and  domes  should  also  be  carefully 
avoided. 

Additional  comfort  may  be  afforded  by  an  eifi-  Comforts, 
cient  heating  and  ventilating  system.  Clean  fresh 
air,  introduced  in  proper  quantities  at  the  right 
temperature,  is  always  appreciated  by  the  public, 
either  in  winter  or  in  summer,  and  this  fresh  air 
should  penetrate  the  breathing  zone  instead  of 
going  direct  to  the  floor  and  chilling  the  feet  of 
the  spectators.       Other  things  being  equal,  the 


104  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

house  affording  the  best  ventilation  and  most 
comfort  will  have  the  largest  audiences. 

THE  AIRDOME. 

The  Airdome  is  a  summer  form  of  motion  pic- 
ture theatre.  Where  there  is  sufficient  width  the 
side  spaces  of  an  airdome  should  be  embellished 
with  attractive  flower  beds,  arranged  in  banks 
with  white  gravel  paths  winding  about  them.  If 
possible  the  grounds  should  be  inclosed  within  a 
green  latticed  fence  or  wall,  decorated  with  quick 
growing  vines,  and  topped  with  a  string  of  small, 
vari-colored  electric  lights. 

Entertainments  Where  the  depth  of  the  lot  is  enough  to  per- 
mit an  extension  of  at  least  fifty  feet  behind  the 
screen,  rear  projection  should  always  be  employed, 
with  the  projection  rays  boxed  in  by  a  black-lined 
inclosure  extending  from  the  machine  booth  to  the 
rear  of  the  screen.  This  inclosure  arrangement 
will  produce  an  intensified  light  on  the  picture  and 
allow  good  presentation  in  glaring  daylight,  if 
the  screen  frame  be  formed  like  a  shallow  shadow 
box  as  well.  Airdome  matinees  for  ladies  and 
children  at  half-price  would  be  a  novel  and  attrac- 
tive feature  that  would  substantially  add  to  the 
revenue. 

seating.  Slat-seated  benches  should  be  used  so  as  to  shed 

rain  water  freely,  and  they  should  be  aligned  in 
straight  rows  with  a  twenty-two  inch  space  al- 
lowed for  each  seat.  The  necessary  number  of 
circular,    woven-straw    seat    cushions    commonly 


MOTION  PICTURE  THEATRES  105 

used  for  such  purposes  should  be  freely  distributed 
among  the  audience. 

In  the  exterior  architecture  of  the  airdome  a 
touch  of  the  bizarre  and  fantastic  is  by  no  means 
out  of  place.  A  design  of  the  conventionalized 
Egyptian,  Byzantine  or  Chinese  styles  would,  of 
course,  be  preferable  to  a  mistaken  attempt  at 
originality  leading  only  to  triviality  or  vulgarity. 

THE  SCREEN. 

The  screen  and  its  position  are  controlling  fac- 
tors in  the  planning  of  a  motion  picture  theatre. 
Since  the  screen  is  the  focal  point  for  the  audi- 
ence, the  general  design  and  decoration  of  the  in- 
terior should  aim  to  concentrate  attention  on  that 
point. 

The  position  of  the  screen  is  largely  influenced  Position  of 
by  the  quality  of  pictures  desired.  ■  For  ordinary 
front  projection  a  screen  should  be  located  eigh- 
teen or  twenty  feet  behind  the  proscenium  open- 
ing to  give  a  shadow  box  effect  when  the  stage 
is  darkened.  The  farther  behind  the  opening  the 
screen  is  placed  the  better,  but  great  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  install  it  so  far  back  that  specta- 
tors sitting  on  the  extreme  sides  of  the  audi- 
torium would  be  deprived  of  a  full  view  of  the 
screen. 

Probably  the  best  screen  for  use  in  a  motion  screen  for 

Rear 

picture  theatre  where  conditions  will  permit  is  a   Projection, 
translucent  screen  for  rear  projection,  where  the 
picture  is  thrown  from  behind  instead  of  from 


106  MODERN   THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

the  front.  Rear  projection  requires  a  space  of 
about  fifty  feet  between  the  machine  and  screen 
for  good  effect,  although  some  arrangement  might 
be  perfected  for  diminishing  that  distance  by 
the  use  of  an  intermediate  mirror  for  reflect- 
ing the  picture  between  the  machine  and  the 
screen.  In  the  use  of  either  front  or  rear  pro- 
jection, the  screen  should  be  raised  about  two  feet 
above  the  stage  level  so  as  to  present  a  perfect 
view  from  every  seat  in  the  house.  Any  extraor- 
dinary lifting  of  the  eyes  to  view  a  picture  soon 
tires  the  optic  nerve  and  produces  drowsiness. 
Brilliant  As  regards  visual  requirements,  the  tendency 

Desirable.  js  nQw  toward  smaller  and  better  lighted  pictures. 
The  size  of  a  picture  depends  upon  the  distance 
of  the  throw  and  the  amperage  of  light.  A 
twelve-foot  picture  is  considered  "life  size."  A 
well  lighted  picture  of  this  size  should  be  the 
limit  for  a  fifty-foot  throw,  a  fifteen-foot  picture 
for  a  seventy-five  foot  throw,  and  for  a  hundred- 
foot  throw  or  longer  any  size  that  may  be  brill- 
iantly illuminated  and  that  will  not  show  living 
figures  that  appear  from  the  rear  seats  much 
larger  than  normal 

The  following  table  copied  from  Richardson's 
Motion  Picture  Handbook,  an  invaluable  text 
book  for  managers  and  operators,  will  furnish  a 
scale  of  relative  widths  and  heights,  together  with 
the  greater  cost  of  producing  larger  pictures: 


MOTION  PICTURE  THEATRES  107 


Light 

Table. 

forth 

Height 

Area 

Area  increase 

Percentage  of 

i  feet. 

in  feet. 

sq.  ft. 

in  sq.  ft. 

increase  area. 

6 

4.40 

26.4 

7 

5.13 

35.9 

9.5 

36 

8 

5.87 

36.9 

11.0 

31 

9 

6.60 

59.4 

12.5 

26 

10 

7.33 

73.3 

13.9 

23 

11 

8.07 

88.7 

15.4 

21 

12 

8.80 

105.6 

16.9 

19 

13 

9.53 

123.9 

18.3 

18 

14 

10.27 

143.7 

19.8 

16 

15 

11.00 

165.0 

21.2 

15 

16 

11.73 

187.7 

22.7 

14 

17 

12.47 

212.0 

24.2 

13 

'18 

13.20 

237.6 

25.6 

12 

19 

13.93 

264.7 

27.1 

11 

20 

14.67 

293.3 

28.6 

11 

While  it  may  require  a  stronger  light  to  pro- 
ject a  picture  through  an  indirectly  lighted  audi- 
torium the  result  is  well  worth  it,  especially  with 
comedy  pictures:  Even  with  drama,  darkness 
does  not  -really  increase  the  interest,  a  dimmed 
light  being  preferable  to  none  at  all.  Just  so 
radically  as  the  motion  picture  differs  from  the 
spoken  drama,  so  must  the  manner  of  its  presen- 
tation show  innovations  in  stagecraft. 

There  are  many  good  and  some  bad  screens  Materials 
on  the  market  today.  There  can  be  very  little 
objection  to  a  screen  of  hard  plaster  laid  on  metal 
lath  and  mounted  on  a  frame  of  non-combustible 
material.  Such  a  screen  affords  more  rigidity  than 
a  cloth  screen,  which  is  susceptible  to  atmos- 
pheric disturbances.  The  above  refers  only  to 
screens  for  ordinary  front  projection.     The  best 


For  Screens. 


108  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

screens  for  rear  projection  are  made  from  ground 
glass,  a  rigid  substance  that  permits  of  various 
surface  treatments, 
screen  There  is,  however,  a  great  difference  in  screen 

Surfaces.  '        & 

surfaces.  Much  depends  upon  the  use  to  which 
the  screen  is  subjected.  The  function  of  a  screen 
is  to  reflect  light,  and  light  rays  always  travel  in 
straight  lines.  If  the  screen  has  a  matte  or 
roughened  surface,  instead  of  a  polished  one,  a 
decided  advantage  is  obtained,  as  the  light  rays 
are  slightly  diffused  in  reflection  and  a  better  pic- 
ture is  the  result. 

For  a  wide  house  a  special  surface  that  will 
distribute  the  rays  at  a  wider  angle  is  desirable, 
while  for  a  narrow  house  a  more  brilliant  surface 
that  concentrates  the  light  is  better.  The  ex- 
posed surface  of  all  screens  should  be  outlined 
with  a  dull  black  border  to  give  better  definition 
and  impart  a  beneficial  effect  to  the  picture.  This 
border  should  be  painted  with  ordinary  dry  lamp- 
black mixed  with  a  preparation  of  one-third  lin- 
seed oil  and  two-thirds  turpentine. 

THE   PROJECTION    ROOM. 

The  proper  location  of  the  projection  room  is 
also  a  serious  question  in  designing  a  motion  pic- 
ture theatre,  a  factor  of  greater  importance  than 
is  generally'  imagined.  Yielding  to  a  tendency 
to  imitate  rather  than  originate,  architects  are 
generally  inclined  to  copy  blindly  the  bad  exam- 
ples   set    by   incompetent    designers.      Whatever 


MOTION  PICTURE  THEATRES  109 

the  distance  of  throw,  the  angle  of  projection 
should  be  as  nearly  level  as  possible,  and  ought 
never  to  exceed  fifteen  degrees.  The  flatter 
the  throw,  the  better  the  projection.  In  Chicago 
and  other  Western  cities  projection  rooms  for- 
merly placed  high  are  now  being  removed  to  the 
main  floor. 

The  center  beam  of  light  should  strike  the  cen-  p££j|:*iono£ 
ter  of  the  screen  at  a  right  angle.  Any  departure 
from  this  condition  must  produce  a  distortion 
that  is  made  manifest  in  what  is  called  a  "key- 
stone effect."  That  is,  when  the  beam  of  light 
comes  from  an  altitude,  the  picture  will  resemble 
in  appearance  an  inverted  keystone,  larger  at  the 
base  than  at  the  top.  The  higher  the  altitude  the 
greater  the  degree  of  distortion.  When  the  angle" 
of  light  is  above  fifteen  degrees  the  distortion  be- 
comes evident  to  the  eye,  and  the  screen  must 
then  be  tilted  backward  to  offset  this  defect. 
This  again  affects  the  view  of  the  spectators  in 
another  way,  for  the  screen  will  not  appear  to  be 
plumb.  Unless  the  tilting  be  artfully  concealed, 
it  is  sure  to  be  detected  by  the  observant. 

Level  conditions  for  a  projection  room  are 
rarely  feasible  in  front  projection,  unless  the 
booth  be  placed  on  the  main  floor.  This  is  not 
generally  done  because  of  its  impracticability  and 
the  disfigurement  that  results  from  placing  a  pro- 
jection booth  in  the  main  foyer.  Rear  projec- 
tion is  far  preferable  where  the  conditions  make 
it  possible.     It  admits  of  placing  the  projection 


110 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Avoid  High 

Projection 

Rooms. 


Size  of 

Projection 

Room. 


booth,  with  all  its  heat,  noise  and  danger,  com- 
pletely away  from  the  audience,  and  also  saves 
the  extra  electric  current  required  for  projection 
through  a  lighted  auditorium. 

Where  the  distance  from  the  machine  to  the 
screen  is  about  fifty  feet,  so  that  a  four-inch  E.F. 
objective  lens,  or  even  a  larger  one,  may  be  used, 
rear  projection  is  ideal.  The  projection  rays  may 
be  confined  in  a  horn  shaped,  black  lined  funnel, 
extending  from  the  projection  machine  to  the 
screen  with  the  small  end  of  the  funnel  attached 
to  the  projection  machine.  With  rear  projection, 
the  film  must  be  placed  in  the  machine  with  the 
emulsion  side  toward  it  instead  of  toward  the 
light,  which  is  the  practice  in  front  projection. 

Where  the  balcony  is  deep  and  its  rear  too 
high  the  projection  room  may  be  placed  on  the 
mezzanine  that  forms  the  lower-balcony,  with  in- 
dependent means  of  entrance  and  exit.  The  lens 
and  observation  ports  are  then  made  to  face  an 
extra  wide  tunnel  piercing  the  balcony.  Other- 
wise it  should  be  placed  on  the  rear  level  of  the 
balcony,  with  the  lens  openings  sufficiently  high 
to  permit  the  free  passage  of  the  light  rays  eman- 
ating from  these  ports  above  the  heads  of  passers- 
by.  Unless  the  throw  is  unusually  long  the  pro- 
jection room  should  never  be  placed  like  a  con- 
ning turret,  high  above  the  rear  level  of  the  bal- 
cony, because  of  certain  evident  distortion. 

A  projection  room  must  not  be  less  than  forty 
feet  distant  from  the  screen,  and,  to  accommodate 


Observation 


MOTION  PICTURE  THEATRES  111 

two  machines,  should  not  be  less  than  seven  feet 
high  and  nine  feet  square.  If  three  machines 
are  to  be  employed,  the  width  should  be  increased 
to  twelve  feet.  The  floor  of  the  projection  room 
must  be  fire-proof  and  absolutely  rigid,  to  prevent 
vibration.  Self-closing  exit  doors,  preferably  of 
the  gravity  sliding  type,  should  be  placed  on  each 
side  of  the  room.  If  an  ordinary  hinged  door 
be  used  it  should  swing  outward,  as  usually  re- 
quired by  law  for  all  exits. 

The    lens    and    observation    ports    should    be   Lens  and 

Observ**1 

equipped  with  automatic  closing  shutters.  The  Ports- 
law  usually  requires  that  these  openings  be  oper- 
ated by  fusible  links  to  guard  against  fire.  The 
writer  has  always  entertained  a  prejudice  against 
fusible  links,  on  the  ground  that  they  may, 
or  may  not,  burn  at  the  critical  moment. 
For  this  reason  he  favors  an  ingenious  device  em- 
ployed in  Germany,  that  insures  the  constant  at- 
tendance of  an  operator  at  his  post.  It  is  a  spe- 
cial attachment  linked  to  a  depressible  metal  plat- 
form fitted  in  the  floor,  and  upon  which  the 
operator  stands  to  manipulate  his  machine.  His 
weight  depressing  this  plate  acts  through  the 
linked  connections  as  a  pedal  to  hold  the  shutters 
open.  The  instant  he  abandons  his  post  the  re- 
lief of  weight  from  the  platform  pulls  the  link 
and  automatically  closes  the  shutters.  In  case  of 
sudden  fire  fright  would  impel  the  operator  in- 
stinctively to  jump  off  the  platform  and  thereby 


112  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

automatically  "close  the  shutters  before  the  audi- 
ence become  aware  of  any  danger. 

Where  two  machines  are  used,  these  platforms 
could  be  so  connected  that  a  person  standing  on 
one  would  depress  the  other  and  hold  open  both 
sets  of  ports.  If  the  operator  desired  to  dissolve 
one  picture  into  another,  his  assistant,  always 
present  by  legal  requirement,  might  temporarily 
stand  on  one  platform  while  the  desired  change 
was  made.  A  Boston  ordinance,  recognizing  the 
necessity  of  operators  remaining  constantly  at 
their  post,  demands  that  the  light  control  valve 
be  always  held  open  by  an  extension  spring,  so 
that  a  steady  hand  pressure  is  required  to  keep 
it  closed  and  thereby  to  give  light, 
observation  Observation   ports    are    usually    designed    too 

small,  and  at  improper  heights.  To  be  at  all  use- 
ful, an  observation  port  should  be  about  twelve 
inches  wide  and  six  inches  high,  so  that  the  oper- 
ator, standing  at  his  machine,  two  or  three  feet 
back  from  the  opening,  may  see  the  full  screen 
without  craning  his  neck.  The  height  of  the  ob- 
servation port  should  conform  to  the  height  of 
the  operator  and  the  opening  should  be  cut  twenty- 
four  inches  high.  This  open  space  should  be 
fitted  with  movable  metal  plates,  working  in 
grooves  of  similar  material,  one  above  the  other, 
each  six  by  twelve  inches  in  size.  In  number, 
these  metal  plates  should  be  one  less  than  enough 
to  cover  the  entire  opening,  .and  a  clear  glass 
plate  should  be  employed  to  cover  the  space  left 


Ports. 


MOTION  PICTURE  THEATRES  113 

vacant  by  the  missing  metal  plate.  Many  oper- 
ators, in  .addition  to  covering  the  observation 
ports,  also  cover  the  lens  port  with  a  clear  glass 
plate.  This,  is,  however,  an  unnecessary  prac- 
tice, and  it  only  provides  another  dirt  collecting 
glass  through  which  the  picture  must  be  pro- 
jected. 

The  vent  flue  of  the  projection  room  should  be  Nectary, 
ample  and  lead  direct  to  the  open.  It  should  be 
placed  immediately  above  the  machine,  so  as  to 
carry  off  at  once  any  fumes  or  smoke  resulting 
from  burning  film.  A  flue  above  each  machine 
would  be  preferable  to  a  single  flue  over  the  en- 
tire group  of  machines.  It  is  essential  that  the 
vent  flue  be  composed  of  non-inflammable  mate- 
rials for  its  entire  length,  as  it  is  liable  to  become 
intensely  hot  if  there  should  be  a  serious  fire. 
Perhaps  the  safest  plan  would  be  to  construct  a 
double  flue  with  a  generous  air  space  between  the 
inner  and  outer  tubes. 

In  addition  to  the  vent  flues  the  projection  Ventilation, 
room  should  have  other  ventilation.  The  operat- 
ing room  is  often  located  directly  under  a  roof  of 
tin  or  of  other  material  quickly  heated  by  the 
sun,  and  with  the  heat  from  the  machines,  the 
temperature  often  becomes  unbearable.  Its  ven- 
tilation, however,  should  not  come  from  the  audi- 
torium, as  that  air  is  already  vitiated  and  over-  . 
heated. 

An  extra  fireproof  room,  directly  adjacent  to  Rewinding 
the  projection  room,  for  rewinding  film  and  for 


114  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

other  necessary  mechanical  operations,  should 
also  be  installed.  The  exit  doors  from  the  pro- 
jection room  should  lead  directly  into  and  through 
this  ante-room,  and  there  should  be  exits  from 
this  outer  room  into  a  section  outside  of  the  audi- 
torium. 
FiremExtin-  Small  chemical  tanks  should  be  attached  to  the 

guishers.  ante-room  side  of  the  exit  doors  from  the  pro- 

jection room,  with  exhaust  nozzles  penetrating 
into  the  interior  of  the  latter  room.  This  will 
enable  the  operator  in  an  instant  to  turn  on. the 
cocks  of  these  tanks  and  flood  the  projection  room 
with  a  fire-extinguishing  fluid  in  case  of  sudden 
fire. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  careful  operator  should 
never  have  a  film  fire.  Such  a  contingency  will 
not  occur  if  his  machine  is  kept  in  good  working- 
order — clean  and  well  lubricated.  In  case  of  an 
•  accident,  however,  there  should  be  buckets  well 
filled  with  clean  sand,  and  a  wet  blanket  readily 
at  hand  to  beat  out  the  flame. 


Main    Floor   Plan   of   Model 

Photoplayhouse 

(Egyptian) 


Longitudinal    Section    of    Model 

Photoplayhouse 

(Egyptian) 


115 


.........   .    .    .  .  ...     -  ... 


Jllil 


MJJ 


116 


CHAPTER  VIII 


SAFETY 


HE  general  arrangement  of  a  theatre  must  General 

Arrangement. 


T 

conform  to  a  design  which  will  in  every 
detail  provide  for  the  safety  of  the  audi- 
ence. Safety  should  have  at  all  times  a  predom- 
inance over  all  other  considerations  in  planning  a 
building  of  any  kind,  especially  a  theatre.  In 
order  to  insure  safety  and  to  obviate  tendencies 
that  hinder  safe  construction  four  primary  prin- 
ciples must  be  studied  and  maintained.  First,  the 
building  must  be  completely  isolated  from  other 
property.  Second,  the  stage  must  be  capable  of 
instant  isolation  from  the  auditorium,  by  the  clos- 
ing of  the  proscenium  opening  with  a  fire-resist- 
ing curtain.  Third,  the  highest  seat  in  the  audi- 
ence hall  must  never  be  higher  than  the  top  of 
the  proscenium  opening,  so  that  all  seats  will  be 
as  near  as  possible  to  the  street.  This  is  a  con- 
dition adhered  to  in  London  theatre  construction, 
by  submerging  the  main  floo*  of  the  auditorium 
below  the  street  level.  Fourth,  and  last,  every 
department  of  the  theatre  must  have  two  inde- 
pendent exits,  preferably  one  on  each  side  or  one 
at  each  end,  communicating  directly  with  the 
street.  The  exits  from  the  .upper  sections  should 
have  openings  only  at  the  top  and  bottom,  with 
no  intermediate  doors  to  confuse  patrons  in  time 
of  danger.    The  entire  plan  of  the  house  should 

117 


118 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Inadequate 
Fire  Laws. 


Panic,  Not 
Fire,  the  Real 
Danger. 


be  simple  and  symmetrical,  each  section  being 
separated  from  the  other. 

Wherever  possible,  there  should  be  visible  signs 
of  safety,  not  by  printed  notices  that  might  alarm 
the^ timid,  but  by  substantial  construction  designed 
to  give  a  feeling  of  security.  Where  stability  is 
secured  thereby,  simulation  of  stronger  materials 
may  be  employed.  For  instance,  the  plastering 
of  interior  walls  in  imitation  of  solid  blocks  of 
Caen  stone  is  effective,  for,  in  addition  to  impart- 
ing a  sense  of  security,  such  plastering  is  highly 
decorative. 

A  quarter  of  a  century  ago  most  American 
cities  were  without  definite  laws  regulating  thea- 
tre construction.  Since  then,  however,  the  fre- 
quency of  theatre  fires  has  frightened  the  authori- 
ties into  forcing  upon  the  American  public  every- 
where unjust  and  inadequate  laws,  that  neither 
improve  the  theatre  nor  safeguard  the  public. 

These  unwise  laws  are  not  only  bad  in  them- 
selves, but  they  are  usually  badly  administered  by 
divided  authority.  A  building  department  re- 
quires one  thing,  the  health  department  another, 
the  fire  department  still  another,  and  a  chaos  of 
conflicting  regulations  is  the  result.  It  would  be 
a  far  more  satisfactory  arrangement  if  all  of 
these  bodies  were  consolidated  under  some  central 
authoritative  control,  whose  dictum  would  be  final. 

Fire  is  not  the  only  danger  to  which  theatre 
patrons  are  subjected.  Experience  teaches  that 
in  most  theatre  fire  calamities  the  great  majority 


SAFETY  119 

of  victims  have  perished  from  suffocation  as  a 
result  of  panic,  without  even  having  had  their 
clothing  scorched.  Disregarding  the  poorly 
planned  theatres  with  badly  arranged  or  insuffi- 
cient exits  and  the  theatres  constructed  with  com- 
bustible materials,  careful  consideration  should  be 
given  to  the  principal  causes  of  theatre  fires  and 
panics. 

According  to  statistics,  compiled  by  Edwin  O. 
Sachs,  a  noted  architect  and  an  international 
authority  on  theatre  construction,  the  average  life 
of  a  theatre  is  about  eighteen  years.  This  same 
statistician  says  that  the  annual  number  of  thea- 
tre fires  in  the  United  States  almost  equals  the 
number  of  similar  catastrophes  in  all  of  the  Euro- 
pean countries  together.  Serious  theatre  fires 
have  an  uncanny  custom  of  happening  in  batches 
of  twos  and  threes  within  short  periods  of  .each 
other. 

The  statistics  of  Mr.  Sachs  further  indicate  Origin©! 
that  theatre  fires  are  on  the  increase  and  the  yearly 
average  is  now  close  to  forty.  They  show  that 
over  fifty  per  cent  of  theatre  conflagrations  have 
.  had  their  origin  in  or  near  the  stage  section,  the 
immediate  causes  of  these  fires  being  defects  in 
gas  installation,  careless  or  defective  equipment 
for  lighting  with  gas,  unprotected  gas  lights,  de- 
fects in  the  heating  apparatus,  presence  of  fire- 
works, explosions,  faulty  lamps,  firing  of  guns, 
and  errors  in  electric  wiring.  The  introduction  of 
electricity  instead,  of  gas  has  not  lessened  ma- 


Most  Fires. 


120 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Avoid 
Openings 
to   Adjoining 
Property. 


terially  these  causes,  as  faulty  insulation  and 
short-circuits  have  proved  as  dangerous  as  gas 
defects.  Since  the  stage  section  is  the  point  where 
the  majority  of  theatre  fires  have  their  origin,  it 
should  receive  the  greatest  amount  of  attention 
from  the  builders.  The  proper  construction  of 
the  stage,  its  safe  equipment,  and  the  installation 
of  the  electric  wiring  thereon  must  receive  the 
most  thorough  attention. 

No  doors,  windows  or  other  openings  should 
be  allowed  in  stage  walls  adjacent  to  neighboring 
property,  because  of  the  danger  of  fire  from  with- 
out the  premises.  The  same  argument  serves 
against  the  legalized  open  court  with  emergency 
exits  leading  to  it.  Emergency  exits,  being  rarely 
used,  are  almost  useless  and  likely  to  produce 
panic,  and  should  a  fire  occur  in  an  adjoining 
property,  such  exits  would  be  a  source  of  danger, 
and  the  open  court  would  become  a  disadvantage. 
For  this  reason  European  theatres  are  entirely 
isolated  from  surrounding  buildings,  and  open 
courts  not  equal  to  the  width  of  a  street  are  never 
allowed. 

In  accordance  with  sane  principles  for  stage 
construction  the  proscenium  wall,  protecting  the 
auditorium  from  the  stage  house,  should  be  con- 
structed absolutely  fireproof.  Notwithstanding 
the  legal  provision  made  in  many  states  that  this 
wall  must  be  built  of  heavy  brick,  substantial  hol- 
low building  tile  sufficiently  heavy  to  withstand 
the  high  water  pressure   from  fire  hose  is    far 


SAFETY  121 

better  and  safer.    This  is  also  true  of  other  heavy 
walls. 

The  large  opening  in  this  wall  through  which  Fire  Curtain, 
the  spectators  view  the  stage  is  now  protected, 
in  all  theatres,  by  a  fire  curtain.  The  best  of 
these  fire  curtains  are  made  of  sheets  of  perpen- 
dicular asbestos  cloth,  sewn  together  with  pure 
asbestos  sewing  twine.  The  completed  curtain 
should  weigh  not  less  than  two  pounds  to  the 
square  foot. 

An  asbestos  curtain,  because  of  its  weight,  must 
have  to  hold  it  unusually  firm  fastenings  and 
brackets  securely  bolted  to  the  proscenium  wall, 
and  the  cables  holding  the  curtain  should  run 
first  over  these  brackets  and  then  over  a  head- 
block  to  counter-weights  that  slide  in  a  groove. 
These  weights  should  be  so  balanced  that  the  cur- 
tain may  be  easily  manipulated  from  either  the 
fly  gallery  or  the  stage  level  by  a  small  manila 
hand  rope.  The  curtain  should  overlap  the  pros- 
cenium opening  on  the  inside  at  each  end  of  the 
arch  by  not  less  than  eighteen  inches. 

It  is  a  debatable  question  whether  the  asbestos  Fusible  Links 
curtain,  controlled  by  a  fusible  link,  as  required 
by  law,  would  or  would  not  come  down  in  case 
of  fire.  The  fire  curtain  at  the  fatal  Iroquois 
Theatre  fire  in  Chicago,  equipped  in  this  manner, 
stuck  at  the  critical  moment,  and  allowed  the  gas 
and  smoke  to  pour  underneath  the  bottom  of  the 
partly  closed  curtain  into  the  auditorium,  asphyxi- 
ating most  of  the  victims  of  this  sad  catastrophe. 


122 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Emergency 
Door  in 
Fire   Curtain. 


Dressing 
Rooms. 


It  is  the  conviction  of  competent  authorities  that 
if  the  lowering  of  the  fire  curtain  depended  upon 
an  attendant  rather  than  upon  the  automatic  ac- 
tion of  a  fusible  link,  it  would  be  far  more  certain 
of  operation. 

It  is  better  to  have  the  asbestos  curtain  dis- 
guised by  pictorial  decoration,  so  as  not  to  create 
alarm  whenever  it  is  lowered  to  test  its  working 
condition.  A  small  fireproof  door  installed  in  this 
curtain  is  also  most  desirable,  for  should  a  panic 
occur  and  the  curtain  be  dropped  the  immediate 
appearance  of  some  responsible  person  on  the 
stage  would  be  of  invaluable  aid  in  quieting  the 
audience.  Anyone  with  sufficient  presence  of 
mind  to  use  this  door  would  be  likely  to  have 
enough  composure  to  demand  the  immediate  at- 
tention of  an  audience  and  might  by  reassuring 
advice  prevent  a  panic. 

The  vast  quantity  of  inflammable  articles  usu- 
ally assembled  on  the  stage  also  increases  the  lia- 
bility of  fire.  Such  articles  should  be  thoroughly 
fireproofed,  and  where  it  is  impossible  to  con- 
struct them  of  incombustible  materials  precaution 
should  be  taken  that  they  are  separated  widely 
enough  to  prevent  a  general  conflagration  in  case 
of  a  sudden  blaze  in  one  stage  section.  Carpen- 
ter shops,  scene  docks  and  storage  rooms  should 
also  be  separated  from  each  other,  and  the  boiler 
room  should  be  isolated  from  the  stage  itself. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience  dressing  rooms 
are  usually  installed  on  the  side  or  rear  of  the 


SAFETY  123 

stage  section  behind  fireproof  walls.  Although 
the  laws  of  some  cities  forbid  it,  there  is  no  rea- 
son why  well  ventilated  dressing  rooms  should  not 
be  placed  underneath  an  orchestra  floor,  if  a  safe 
mode  of  egress  be  provided. 

The  skylights  over  the  stage,  controlled  by  the  fjjjg  of 
fusible  links  usually  prescribed  by  law,  are  of 
very  doubtful  value.  It  would  be  far  better  to 
substitute  large  automatic  ventilators  in  the  stage 
roof  for  the  escape  of  gas  and  smoke,  as  the  ac- 
cumulation of  gas  generated  by  fire  and  its  subse- 
quent explosion  on  the  stage  might  blow  the  pros- 
cenium wall  into  the  auditorium  in  an  incredibly 
short  space  of  time.  If  it  be  inconvenient  or  un- 
sightly to  furnish  similar  ventilation  in  the  audi- 
torium ceiling,  vent-flues  could  be  placed  high 
above  the  stage  opening  in  the  proscenium  wall 
to  insure  better  air  circulation.  The  air  circulat- 
ing at  this  height  would  form  a  draught  strong 
enough  to  clear  the  hall  of  gas  or  smoke  in  time  of 
conflagration  and  in  normal  times  serve  as  an  ex- 
cellent means  of  ventilating  the  auditorium. 

Every  theatre  should  be  equipped  with  the  most 
improved  and  modern  devices  for  quickly  detect- 
ing, suppressing  or  reporting  fires,  and  each  mana- 
ger should  insist  on  a  daily  fire  drill.  Regular 
examinations  by  fire  experts  should  also  be  made 
of  all  safety  devices,  fire  alarms;  standpipes, 
chemical  tanks  and  ventilators;  and  the  clearance 
of  all  exits  and  entrances  should  be  strictly  super- 
vised and  enforced. 


f 


124 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Escape 
for  Actors 


Safety  of 
Audience. 


Proper  provision  should  be  made  for  the  safety 
of  the  actors  and  the  stage  personnel  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  ample  and  well-lighted  passageways, 
with  stairways  and  exits  leading  directly  from 
the  stage  and  dressing  J*o0ms  to  the  open  on  either 
side  of  the  theatre.  As  a  substitute  for  stairs  a 
continuous  slide,  similar  to  those  provided  at 
amusement  parks,  would  be  an  excellent  innova- 
tion for  the  use  of  actors  and  stage  hands,  who 
could  be  easily  rehearsed  in  its  use. 

The  fly  galleries  and  rigging  loft,  too,  should 
have  iron  ladders' or  stairways  on  each  side  of 
the  stage,  leading  therefrom  as  a  means  of  pro- 
tection to  the  workmen  there  employed.  Greater 
safety  for  the  stage  section  can  be  secured  by  good 
planning  and  construction  than  by  any  other 
means.  Where  it  is  possible  iron  construction 
should  take  the  place  of  wood,  and  the  ventilating 
apparatus  should  be  always  kept  in  perfect  work- 


ing order. 


EXITS. 


Although  the  auditorium-  is  less  liable  to  fire, 
the  safety  of  the  audience,  nevertheless,  is  of  su- 
preme importance.  The  first  problem  to  be  con- 
sidered in  this  connection  is  that  of  exits. 

The  exits  of  a  theatre  embrace  all  avenues  of 
egress,  including  the  entrance  lobby,  foyer,  all 
passages  and  stairways,  in  fact,  the  various  routes 
that  the  persons  therein  must  travel  to  escape  in 
time  of  danger.    A  theatre  fire  may  become  fatal 


SAFETY  125 

within  five  minutes  from  the  time  of  its  discovery, 
and  it  is  therefore  vitally  important  that  proper 
and  sufficient  means  be  supplied  to  provide  speedy 
exit  in  such  emergencies.  Even  if  the  alarm  should 
prove  to  be  false  similar  provision  is  necessary 
to  prevent  death  and  injury  from  panic. 

The  distribution  of  exits  depends  entirely  on  Lobby  and 

,  .  .  Foyer. 

the  plan  of  the  theatre  and  the  nature  of  its  site. 
The  problem  of  quick  and  safe  departure  rests 
largely  on  a  proper  sub-division  of  the  various  de- 
partments, each  sub-division  having  direct  inde- 
pendent means  of  egress  on  both  sides  of  the 
building.  In  no  case  should  exit  passages  meet 
or  cross  one  another.  The  number  and  size  of 
exits  must  be  determined  wholly  by  the  seating 
capacity  of  the  theatre. 

The  principal  avenue  of  escape  is  the  entrance  The  Entrance 
lobby,  which  should  be  well  arranged  and  free  Foyenan 
from  obstruction.  An  intermediate  avenue,  and 
the  next  in  importance,  is  the  foyer.  The  natural 
means  of  escape  that  a  panic-stricken  audience 
will  seek  is  the  one  by  which  they  entered  and 
with  which  they  are  thoroughly  familiar.  This 
would  be  through  the  lobby  and  foyer.  Accord- 
ingly, these  should  be  planned  large  enough  for 
such  emergencies,  and  the  most  useful  design  in 
this  connection  for  a  foyer  is  that  of  a  semi-cir- 
cular inclosed  passage  surrounding  the  rear  and 
the  rear  sides  of  an  audience  hall. 

The   foyer  should  be   from  eight  to  ten   feet 
wide  in  the  rear  section  and  five  or  six  feet  in 


126  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

width  at  the  sides  (depending  on  the  capacity  of 
the  auditorium).  This  will  afford  ample  room 
for  the  escape  of  a  frenzied  mob  in  time  of  panic 
and  allow  sufficient  promenade  space  on  normal 
occasions.  The  building  laws  of  the  city  of  New 
York  demand  a  space  sixteen  feet  wide  behind 
the  last  row  of  seats  on  the  main  floor  as  a  means 
of  escape.  Such  an  enactment  was  possibly 
prompted  by  a  praiseworthy  desire  to  give  ample 
room  for  the  patrons  to  pause  in  their  flight  and 
ponder  over  the  best  means  of  escape,  though  this 
is  a  most  unlikely  action  on  their  part. 

The  inclosing  of  the  foyer  passage  will  aid  in 
excluding  from  it  smoke  or  gas  in  time  of  fire 
and  will  also  limit  the  sound  area  of  the  audi- 
torium during  the  performance.  It  will,  in  addi- 
tion, allow  the  passage  to  be  independently  lighted 
and  ventilated,  both  desirable  conditions  in  times 
of  panic, 
width  of  The  minimum  width  of  an  exit  for  500  persons 

is  usually  five  feet,  with  an  additional  twenty 
inches  for  each  100  persons  in  excess  of  that 
number.  All  exit  doors  should  have  panic  bolts 
and  swing  outward,  and  each  door  should  be 
plainly  labeled  so  that  no  mistake  can  be  made. 
Cloak  room  or  toilet  door  should  also  be  marked 
as  such  to  avoid  their  being  mistaken  for  emer- 
gency doors.  In  the  opinion  of  the  writer  nar- 
rower exit  doors  and  a  greater  number  of  them 
would  be  more  desirable  than  wide  exit  doors. 
Two  exits  three  feet  wide  are  worth  more  than 


SAFETY  127 

one  exit  six  feet  wide,  as  people  are  less  likely  to 
stumble  in  a  narrow  way  and  more  people  could 
pass  through  the  two  exits. 

All  stairways  should  be  direct  and  of  ample  stairways, 
width.  They  should  not  lead  to  other  stairs,  and 
where  possible  should  have  the  same  formation  on 
both  sides  of  the  building.  All  stairs  should  have 
uniform  treads  and  risers  to  prevent  stumbling, 
and  all  balcony  aisle  steps  should  be  illuminated 
in  the  manner  described  under  the  head  of  "Light- 
ing" for  the  same  reason. 

The  factory  law  in  many  of  our  states  requires   Anti-Smoke 

r  •       i  •  t       7        1         Towers. 

anti-smoke  or  fire  towers  in  factories  and  schools, 
but  no  law  has  yet  prescribed  the  same  regulation 
for  theatres.  Such  towers,  having  large  doors 
equipped  with  panic  bolts  at  each  level, -would  be 
far  more  efficient  for  a  hurried  escape  than  the 
open  grille  type  of  exterior  fire  escape  now  in 
general  use.  These  towers,  inclosed  in  fire-resist- 
ing walls,  could  easily  be  placed  in  the  forward 
corners  on  both  sides  of  the  auditorium,  in  place 
of  the  unsightly  stage  boxes  now  in  vogue,  and 
provided  with  emergency  stairs  or  even  sliding 
chutes  similar  to  those  described  for  the  escape 
of  actors  and  stage  employes.  The  remaining 
space  might  be  devoted  to  convenient  toilets,  thus 
eliminating  useless  box  recesses  that  produce  im- 
perfect acoustics.  The  vista  openings  now  used 
for  stage  boxes  could  then  be  covered  by  orna- 
mental wall  panels  that  would  artistically  assist 
in  focusing  attention  on  the  stage. 


128  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

ALLEYS  OR  OPEN  COURTS. 

The  dark  alleys  or  open  courts  usually  required 
by  law  in  no  way  insure  safety  for  theatre  patrons 
in  time  of  danger.  These  alleys,  except  where 
they  provide  means  of  egress  for  actors  and  stage 
hands,  are  a  waste  of  valuable  space.  Terror- 
stricken  crowds  only  seek  'ways  of  escape  with 
which  they  are  familiar,  and  nothing  in  the  his- 
tory of  theatre  fires  gives  assurance  that  these 
alleys  are  useful  even  for  firemen. 

The  question  of  open  courts  is  also  a  serious  \ 
one  financially.      With  a  plot    ioo   feet  square, 
valued  at  $300,000,  an  alley  10  feet  wide  on  either 
side  reduces  the  productive  area  to  7200  square 
feet,  and  a  space  of  2800  square  feet,  valued  in 
the  same  ratio  at  $84,000,  is  rendered  absolutely 
unproductive. 
Fire  Escapes.         The  open  grille  type  of  fire  escape,  which  also  \ 
was  provided  to  satisfy  a  whimsical  requirement 
of  the  law,  is  a  frightful  source  of  danger  rather! 
than  an  aid  to  escape.     Timid  people  balk  at  the 
risk  of  going  on  to  its  latticed  platform  in  time  of 
danger,  and  thus  may  create  a  temporary  block- 
ade.    In  such  a  situation,  should  the  high  heel  of 
a  woman's  shoe  be  caught  between  these  iron  slats 
(as  it  might  easily  do),  a  catastrophe  might  be 
precipitated.   And  the  raw  iron  of  which  these  firel 
escapes  are  composed  is  a  rapid  conductor  and  a 
lasting  conservator  of  heat,  that  easily  might  be 
heated  to  a  high  degree  without  outwardly  betray- 


SAFETY  129 

ing  its  actual  condition.  The  author  recalls  an 
instance  of  a  victim  of  such  a  disaster,  suddenly 
aroused  from  his  sleep  by  an  alarm  of  fire,  who 
in  a  dazed  effort  to  escape  clambered  through  the 
bedroom  window  on  to  an  open  fire  escape  highly 
heated  by  intermittent  blasts  of  flame  from  a  win- 
dow below,  and  amid  agonizing  cries  for  help 
was  barely  rescued  by  the  daring  efforts  of  a 
heroic  fireman  from  being  grilled  alive  on  this 
innocent  appearing  superheated  gridiron. 

AUDITORIUM. 

The  aisles  of  an  audience  hall  should  be  ample 
and  increase  in  width  toward  the  exits.  The  rows 
of  seats  should  be  spaced  sufficiently  far  apart 
(thirty-six  inches  from  back  to  back)  to  insure 
free  passage,  and  each  seat  should  be  firmly  fas- 
tened to  the  floor.  The  main  floor  aisles  should 
never  have  risers,  but  should  be  formed  with  a 
gradual  incline.. 

Large  balconies,  if  approached  from  the  rear  Balconies- 
of  the  auditorium,  should  be  pierced  by  entrance 
tunnels  leading  from  a  mezzanine  floor  to  the 
cross  passage  behind  the  front  loggias.  In  addi- 
tion, the  stairways  should  be  continued  from  the 
mezzanine  floor,  on  either  side  of  the  house,  to 
the  upper  level  of  the  balcony.  In  motion  picture 
houses,  the  entrance  to  or  exit  from  the  machine 
booth  should  be  independent  of  the  auditorium. 

If  conditions  permit,  a  large  circular  or  oval 
panel,  divisible  into  two  sections  and  capable  of 


130  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

being  readily  opened  to  the  sky,  should  be  in- 
stalled in  the  middle  of  the  ceiling  of  the  audi- 
torium as  a  decorative  ornament.  Otherwise, 
vent  flues  should  be  supplied  in  the  roof  of  the 
stage  house  and  connected  with  the  auditorium 
by  large  ventilators. 

SPRINKLER   SYSTEM. 
Patented  Some  adequate  provision  should  be  made  to 

Sprinkler  111  •   1  •  t 

System.  deluge  the  stage  with  water  in  case  of  an  out- 

break of  fire  in  that  section.  Should  fire  occur 
in  the  dressing  or  other  rooms,  chemical  extin- 
guishing tanks  are  the  best  known  aid  in  confined 
areas.  The  excessive  cost  of  installing  an  elabo- 
rate so-called  "patent"  sprinkler  system  compels 
the  serious  consideration  of  a  home-made  substi- 
tute.. The  regular  sprinkler  systems  on  the 
market  works  automatically  by  excessive  heat 
melting  an  alloy  composition  sealing  the  sprink- 
ler heads,  thereby  releasing  the  water  constantly 
held  in  the  pipes.  This  sealing  substance  melts 
at  a  temperature  of  about  1 10  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
and  when  the  water  is  once  released  nothing  but 
an  exhaustion  of  the  supply  can  arrest  it. 

This  automatic  device  has  the  doubtful  advan- 
tage of  working  whether  any  one  is  present  or 
not,  although  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  of  a  theatre 
ever  being  without  a  watchman  on  guard.  Should 
it  go  off  by  reason  of  heat  generated  under  tin  or 
glass  roofs,  or  for  other  causes  than  heat  from| 


SAFETY       -  131 

fire,  irreparable  damage  might  be  done  before  the 
flood  could  be  arrested. 

A  home-made  contrivance,  consisting  of  two    Home-Made 

.  System. 

three-inch  iron  standpipes  located  on  each  side 
of  the  stage  and  embedded  in  the  walls  that  will 
feed  three  parallel  perforated  one-inch  pipes,  sus- 
pended horizontally  above  the  flies,  would  be 
cheaper  and  more  reliable.  These  pipes  should 
be  kept  empty  except  in  times  of  fire,  when  water 
could  be  turned  on  from  the  stage,  or  from  out- 
side the  building  by  means  of  double  valves  pene- 
trating the  exterior  walls. 

For  safety  from  interference,  these  valves  could 
be  installed  in  glass-fronted  box  inclosures,  to  be 
broken  by  a  blow  when  necessary.  If  brass  or 
bronze  pipes  are  used  for  the  overhead  sprinkler 
pipes,  five  rows  of  small  holes  may  be  drilled  in 
each,  about  three  or  four  inches  apart,  without 
fear  of  corrosion.  The.  undermost  row  should 
be  drilled  perpendicularly  through  the  pipe  and 
the  uppermost  row  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  the 
two  intermediate  rows  being  midway  between  the 
two  first  described  rows,  and  drilled  at  corre- 
sponding angles.  Such  a  distribution  would  afTord 
a  wide  and  ample  range  of  water  spray  from  each 
pipe.  If  the  pipes  used  are  of  iron  they  are  subject 
to  corrosion,  and  brass  nozzles  or  some  equally  ef- 
fective sprinkler  head  must  be  employed  to  pre- 
vent the  holes  from  clogging  with  rust.  Similar 
sprinklers  should  also  be  provided  for  the  large 
workshops  and  storage  rooms. 


132 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Disadvantages 
of    Hose 
Installation. 


Water 
Curtain. 


In  the  absence  of  a  sufficient  local  water  pres- 
sure for  such  a  system  a  standard  automatic  air- 
pressure  water  tank  could  be  employed  in  pref- 
ence  to  erecting  an  unsightly  gravity  tank  on  the 
roof.  These  air  pressure  tanks  are  much  cheaper 
to  install  than  gravity  tanks,  and  the  air  pressure 
that  forces  the  water  upward  is  easily  replenished 
by  a  few  weekly  plunges  of  a  hand  pump  or  they 
may  be  automatically  regulated  by  a  small  motor. 

The  placing  of  hose  on  reels  or  racks  for  use 
in  stage  fires  is  without  reason;  first,  because  in 
the  event  of  a  sudden  and  serious  fire  the  person 
to  seek  safety  without  waiting  might  be  the  very 
one  relied  upon  to  use  the  hose ;  secondly,  because 
pure  rubber  hose,  the  quality  usually  recom- 
mended, is  quickly  ruined  by  dry-rot  after  it  has 
been  hanging  unusued  for  a  short  time.  But  if 
hose  must  be  bought,  it  is  best  to  purchase  cot- 
ton hose,  as  this  kind  is  the  cheapest  and  most 
durable.  In  many  theatre  fires  the  hose  has  been 
discovered  reposing  undisturbed  on  its  rack  after 
the  fire  has  been  extinguished  and  the  damage 
done. 

The  city  of  Boston  advocates  the  use  of  a 
patented  fan-tail  nozzle  which,  when  attached  to 
either  a  high  or  low  pressure  standpipe,  spreads 
a  huge  fanlike  spray  that  serves  as  a  water 
curtain. 

With  a  fire-resisting  roof,  solid  fireproof  party 
walls,  metal  exterior  doors  and  metal  framed  out- 


SAFETY 


133 


side  windows  glazed  with  wired  glass,  combined 
with  a  close  observance  of  the  foregoing  precau- 
tions, any  well  planned  and  properly  constructed 
theatre  will  be  immune  from  fire  calamities. 


Longitudinal   Section 


Plan  of  Orchestra  Well 
Model   Orchestra   Well   at  Wagner   Opera   House,   Bayreuth 


View  of  Model  Small   Photoplayhouse  with    Lobby   Underneath  the   Stage 
For  Description  and  Diagrams  See  Pages  213-218 


134 


CHAPTER  IX 

COMFORT 

MUCH  of  the  comfort  of  a  theatre  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  management.  Since 
amusement  is  largely  a  psychological 
problem,  neither  the  line  read  on  the  stage  nor  the 
scene  there  depicted  is  of  primary  importance.  It 
is  the  impression  produced  upon  the  spectator's 
mind  that  is  the  underlying  factor.  A  favorable 
impression  can  be  made  only  when  the  mind  is 
serene  and  receptive  and  not  when  it  is  preoc- 
cupied or  distracted. 

It   is   therefore  the   duty   of   the   manager   to    Low  Prices 

J  °  t        as  an  Aid  to 

cultivate  mental  receptivity  in  his  audience.  His  Success, 
principal  opportunity  to  do  this  is  through  the 
comfort  he  provides  and  the  price  at  which  he 
provides  it.  The  public  today  is  too  wise  to  be 
deluded  into  a  belief  that  increased  prices  of  ad- 
mission are  an  assurance  of  the  quality  of  a  per- 
formance. On  the  other  hand,  an  unfavorable 
mental  bias  is  created  by  a  high  entrance  fee.  No 
one  ever  heard  a  complaint  about  the  performance 
at  a  twenty-five  cent  circus,  although  the  same 
show  costing  fifty  cents  might  be  termed  vile. 

Uniforming  each  attendant,  no  matter  what  his    A"oufdteBeaiinS 
position,   is   another  advantage   that   will   insure    Uniform- 
courtesy   in  employes   and   thereby  largely  con- 
tribute toward  the  patrons'  satisfaction.     Proper 
heating  and  ventilation  also  help. 

135 


136 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Cloak    Room 
Necessary. 


Convenient 

Toilets 

Essential. 


CLOAK  ROOMS. 

In  failing  to  supply  ample  and  convenient  cloak 
room  space  American  theatre  management  is 
sadly  at  fault.  Inadequate  cloak-hanging  space 
is  usually  supplied  in  some  out-of-the-way  corner 
with  but  one  attendant, -or  two  at  the  most.  In 
Germany  it  is  legally  required  that  there  shall  be 
one  meter  (39  inches)  counter  space  for  deposit- 
ing and  receiving  wraps  for  every  twenty  persons 
of  the  theatre's  capacity  and  a  separate  hook  for 
each  seat  in  the  house.  These  cloak  rooms  also 
must  not  interfere  with  exit  passages. 

By  the  display  of  a  little  ingenuity  ample  pro- 
vision for  cloak  rooms  could  be  easily  made  in 
America,  with  little  or  no  loss  of  seating  space. 
Spaces  in  the  foyer  underneath  the  balcony  stairs 
and  against  the  side  walls  afford  excellent  oppor- 
tunities for  counter  space,  with  coat-hanging  con- 
veniences behind  them.  The  attendance  of  suf- 
ficient maids,  to  obviate  tedious  waiting,  is  also 
necessary. 

TOILETS. 

Suitable  and  conveniently  located  toilets,  though 
vitally  necessary  for  the  comfort  of  theatre  pa- 
trons, are  insufficiently  provided  in  most  Ameri- 
can theatres.  These  toilets  should  not  be  placed 
at  the  foot  or  the  top  of  narrow  flights  of  stairs, 
but  in  accessible  positions. 

A  most?  convenient  plan  would  be  to  install  toi- 
lets in  the  space  now  occupied  by  stage  boxes, 


Passage    Space. 


COMFORT  137 

alongside  the  emergency  stairs  of  the  anti-smoke 
tower;  toilets  for  men  on  one  side,  and  for  wo- 
men on  the  other  side.  These  toilets  should  be 
adequately  equipped  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  pa- 
trons, and  the  ladies'  toilet  should  have  the  cus- 
tomary separate  room  with  mirrors  and  other  fa- 
cilities for  arranging  the  hair  and  dress.  Proper 
toilets  should  also  be  placed  in  the  stage  section 
for  the  use  of  actors  and  those  engaged  behind 
the  curtain. 

SEATING. 

It  is  in  the  matter  of  comfortable  seating  that  widened 
American  theatres  are  most  deficient.  England, 
though  lacking  in  aisle  space,  offers  the  most  com- 
fortable seating  in  the  world  because  of  a  legal 
provision  for  ample  passage  room  between  seat 
rows.  The  law  in  that  country  demands  that  all 
seats  be  spaced  36  inches  from  back  to  back,  in- 
stead of  the  32  inches  which  is  the  maximum 
width  in  this  country.  To  add  to  that  passage 
space  low-backed  chairs  are  employed  similar  to 
those  indicated  in  the  accompanying  cut.  It  is 
therefore  unnecessary  for  anyone  to  arise  to  per- 
mit the  passage  of  a  neighbor,  and  it  is  extremely 
doubtful  if  an  Englishman's  ideas  of  personal 
rights  would  allow  him  to  stand  merely  to  accom- 
modate a  greedy  management. 

This  extra  space  allowance  of  four  inches  to 
each  row  would  mean  the  loss  of  the  last  two  rows 
of  seats  in  an  auditorium  of  twenty  rows;  a  tri- 
fling decrease  compared  with  the  satisfaction  and 


138 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Low    Backed 
Chair   Better. 


increased  patronage  it  would  secure.  Imagine 
the  luxury  of  never  having  one's  attention  to  an 
absorbing  play  disturbed  by  having  to  arise  to 
permit  the  passage  of  a  neighbor. 

The  character  of  the  seats  themselves  is  also 
a  matter  of  first  importance.  The  diagram  show- 
ing the  increased  space  taken  up  by  a  high-backed 
chair  that  leans  backward  as  compared  with  the 
low-backed  and  more  comfortable  one  before  re- 
ferred to  clearly  indicates  that  several  inches  are 
gained  for  each  low  chair  used. 


Health  also  demands  an  erect  posture,  whether 
sitting,  standing  or  walking,  and  every  chair 
should  be  nearly  upright  and  modeled  with  only  a 
slight  curve  to  fit  the  back  and  support  the  spine 
at  its  lumbar  region.  The  high-backed  chairs 
generally  used  in  America  invite  a  slouching,  un- 


COMFORT  139 

healthful  attitude  besides  requiring  additional 
space. 

There  should  be  plenty  of  aisles  for  hasty  exit   Ample   Aisles 

r  J  J  Necessary. 

from  the  theatre,  and  no  seat  should  have  more 
than  six  other  seats  on  either  side  intervening  be- 
tween it  and  the  aisle.  The  wider  the  seats  the 
more  comfortable  they  will  be.  Width  of  seats, 
however,  is  not  so  important  as  width  between 
rows. 

With  a  mean  width  of  from  20  to  22  inches  side  Boxeg. 
for  each  seat  and  an  average. of  four  feet  each 
for  center  or  intermediate  aisles,  and  three  and 
one-half  feet  for  side  aisles,  an  ideal  auditorium 
would  be  from  seventy  to  seventy-five  feet  wide 
between  the  side  boxes  or  about  ninety  feet  be- 
tween walls  without  side  boxes.  When  side  boxes 
are  installed  only  seven  seats  may  be  used  in  the 
extreme  side  sections,  as  the  seats  then  abut 
against  the  box  fronts  and  are  consequently  closed 
at  that  end.  The  use  of  side  boxes  transfers  the 
side  aisles  to  the  space  behind  the  boxes,  where  it 
should  be  widened  to  form  an  inclosed  foyer. 

Wide  auditoriums  are  preferable  to  narrow 
ones,  as  they  allow  more  seating  near  .the  stage 
and  decrease  the  relative  distance  to  be  traveled 
to  the  exit  doors  in  times  of  panic.  Where  it  is 
possible  the  middle  section  of  the  auditorium, 
which  is  the  one  affording  the  best  view  of  the 
stage,  should  be  utilized  for  seats  instead  of  for 
a  middle  aisle. 

Closed  boxes  in  the  rear  of  the  audience  hall 


140  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

value  of  and  sometimes  at  the  rear  of  the  balcony  give  a 

Inclosed  t  i 

Rear  Boxes,  more  finished  and  cosey  appearance  to  a  theatre, 
and  their  inclosure  helps  to  confine  the  acoustic 
space  within  better  limits.  Open  loggias  are  also 
an  excellent  decorative  feature  for  the  front  of  a 
balcony;  and  they  serve  to  popularize  the  really 
best  seats  in  the  theatre,  especially  in  a  picture 
house.  Extra  wide  passages  should  be  provided 
in  the  rear  of  these  loggias  so  that  patrons  may 
enter  them  freely. 

Tip-up  chairs,  preferably  with  folding  arms 
that  close  with  the  action  of  the  seat  and  thereby 
grant  extra  space  for  thoroughfare,  are  most  de- 
sirable. If  upholstered  in  leather  or  a  good  imi- 
tation of  leather  they  are  cooler  and  more  com- 
fortable than  when  covered  with  tapestry  or 
plush.  Close-woven  cane  chairbacks  and  seats 
are  also  sanitary  and  cool.  Chairs  upholstered  in 
plush,  besides  being  hot  and  uncomfortabe,  har- 
bor disease  germs  and  dirt. 

SANITATION. 

Besides  good  ventilation  there  are  other  fea- 
tures pertaining  to  health  and  aiming  toward  the 
comfort  of  theatre  patrons  that  should  have  at- 
tention. The  use  of  soiled  or  heavy  carpets  for 
floors,  cloth -upholstered  furniture,  cloth  wall  cov- 
erings, or  heavy  draperies,  in  all  of  which  dirt 
and  disease-germs  are , bound  to  lurk,  should  be 
avoided.  The  drainage  and  plumbing  of  a  thea- 
tre,  too,   should  always  be  of  the  best,  and  all 


COMFORT 


141 


refuse  or.  rubbish  should  be  removed  promptly 
and  regularly.  The  theatre  itself  and  every  thing 
about  it  should  be  constantly  kept  clean  and  in  a 
sanitary  condition.  As  contributory  to  this  end 
it  would  be  well  to  institute  a  system  of  periodi- 
cal inspections  that  would  promote  the  health  and 
comfort  of  the  patrons  and  staff. 


Model  Plan  of  Schauspielhaus, 
Stuttgart,   Germany 


CHAPTER  X. 

HEATING  AND  VENTILATION. 

THESE  two  subjects  are  so  inter-related  and 
so  dependent  one  upon  the  other  that  it  is 
difficult  to  disassociate  them.  Perfection 
in  both  substantially  adds  to  the  comfort  of  those 
attending  the  theatre.  Fresh  air  is  a  prime  neces- 
sity of  life.  Man  can  live  for  days  without  wa- 
ter, and  for  weeks  without  food,  but  without  air 
he  cannot  live  more  than  a  few  minutes.  A  con- 
stantly renewed  supply  of  air  at  the  right  tem- 
perature is  therefore  essential.  Considering  that 
good  ventilation  is  the  first  rule  of  hygiene  it  is 
astonishing  that  hardly  a  theatre  in  America  is 
equipped  with  any  scientific  method  of  ventila- 
tion, good,  bad  or  indifferent,  although  there  are 
many  excellent  systems  on  the  market.  In  the 
discussion  of  these  two  subjects  the  first  to  be 
treated  will  be  heat.  Heat  is  not  a  substance ;  it 
is  a  condition  set  up  by  an  incessant  movement 
among  the  restless  tiny  molecules  that  compose 
all  matter.  The  demand  for  artificial  heat  de- 
pends largely  upon  climatic  conditions  and  the 
habits  of  the  people  in  the  community.  In  Europe 
59  degrees  Fahrenheit  is  considered  comfortable; 
in  America  the  custom  is  to  maintain  about  70 
degrees. 

The  general   requirements   of   a  heating  and 
ventilating  plant  for  a  theatre  are: 

142 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATION  143 

(i)  Uniform  distribution  of  heat,  and  the  pre- 
vention of  its  waste  by  premature  escape. 

(2)  A  thorough  diffusion  of  fresh  air  through- 
out the  zone  in  which  persons  breathe,  and  a 
provision  for  avoiding  perceptible  currents 
of  either  warm  or  cold  air.> 

(3)  A  prompt  removal  of  all  foul  air. 

The  methods  of  heating  now  in  vogue  may  be   Methods  of 

Heating. 

divided  into  two  general  classes — direct  and  in- 
direct radiation.  The  one  that  we  shall  consider 
is  direct  radiation.  There  are  three  means  of 
producing  heat  by  direct  radiation:  by  hot  air, 
steam  or  hot  water.  To  produce  heat  by  hot  air 
requires  a  special  furnace,  which  is  difficult  to 
regulate  and  is  not  sufficiently  reliable  for  thea- 
tres. Heating  by  hot  water,  while  it  costs  more  to 
install,  because  of  the  increased  number  of  fittings, 
is  a  trifle  cheaper  to  operate,  but  it  is  not  suitable 
for  theatres  because  of  the  likelihood  of  its  freez- 
ing'in  cold  weather.  Steam  is  therefore  the  only 
remaining  system. 

The  following  table  of  the  relative  cost  of  each 
method  may  aid  in  the  process  of  elimination: 

Hot  Hot 

Air  Steam     Water 

Relative  initial  cost  of  apparatus            9  13            15 
Relative    cost    of    operation    for 

five    years     29^4  29            27    . 

It  would  appear   from  this  table  that  direct    steam 
steam  heating  is  the  best  system  to  meet  all  the 
heating  requirements  mentioned  before.        The 
principal   advantage   is   its   ability  to   heat   uni- 


144  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

formly,  regardless  of  wind  action.  It  is  the  cheap- 
est and  quickest  and  is  also  comparatively  im- 
mune from  freezing.  Direct  steam  is  broadly 
divided  into  two  general  classes,  the  gravity  cir- 
culating system  and  the  mechanical  circulating 
system,  the  distinguishing  characteristics  being 
the  manner  in  which  the  condensation  water 
formed  in  the  radiators  is  returned  to  the  boiler. 
In  the  first  type  the  condensate  enters  the  boiler 
by  gravity,  and  in  the  second  type  the  condensate 
is  returned  to  a  receiver  and  is  then  forced  into 
the  boiler  by  a  pump  or  return  traps.  Direct 
steam  heating  also  lends  itself  to  combination  with 
other  systems  by  means  that  will  be  considered 
later.  The  law  usually  requires:  that  heater  rooms 
shall  not  be  located  under  the  auditorium,  stage, 
lobby  or  exits  of  the  theatre. 
Amount  of  To  install  a  heating  apparatus  it  will  first  be 

Required.  necessary  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  heat  required 
for  a  given  building.  To  compute  the  number  of 
feet  of  direct  radiation  required  for  a  building, 
divide  the  cubic  contents  of  the  various  rooms  by 
the  following  factors : 

Divide  by 

Dressing  rooms,  one  side  exposed 40  to     50 

Dressing  rooms,  two  sides  exposed '.  .  .30  to     40 

Auditorium    60  to  100 

Where  there  are  windows,  doors  or  other  ex- 
posures employ  the  lower  divisor  above  quoted 

The  heat  in  an  auditorium  should  be  consider- 
ably lessened  or  turned  off  completely  after  the 
audience  is  seated,  except  where  mechanical  pro- 


146  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

vision  is  made  for  introducing  fresh  heated  air 
to  replace  the  heated  foul  air  constantly  being 
expelled. 

STEAM   HEATING  PLANTS. 

Steam  heating  plants  are  divided  into  three 
distinct  parts;  the  boiler  or  steam  generator,  the 
radiators,  and  the  supply  and  return  pipes  con- 
-  necting  the  two.  The  best  boiler  is  the  tubular 
boiler.  There  are  many  varieties  of  this  useful 
type  of  boiler,  the  horizontal  and  upright  tubular 
boiler  and  the  firebox  type  of  tubular  boiler. 
Horizontal  tubular  boilers  are  largely  used  for 
factories  and  power  plants,  and  the  upright  tubu- 
lar boiler  lacks  the  capacity  of  the  fire-box  type, 
which  requires  no  brick  setting  and  is  cheaper  to 
install  than  other  forms  of  tubular  boilers.  The 
cast-iron  sectional  boiler  in  common  use  also  has 
not  the  capacity  nor  stability  necessary  for  heating 
a  large  theatre. 

For  indications  for  setting  a  boiler,  see  the  dia: 
gram  on  Page  145  showing  the  heating  of  a 
theatre.  The  following  table,  compiled  by  the 
Atlas  Engineering  Works,  Indianapolis,  Ind., 
may  aid  in  the  selection  of  the  size  of  boiler  re- 
quired : 

PROPORTIONS   OF   HORIZONTAL  TUBULAR   BOILERS: 

SHELL  THICKNESS  TUBES 

Nom.  Heat      Grate 

Rated      Diam.  Length  Shell    Heads       Diam.        Length     Surf.       Surf 


H.P. 

Inc. 

feet 

Inc. 

Inc. 

No. 

Inc. 

feet 

sq.  ft. 

sq.  ft 

15 

36 

8 

% 

H 

26 

3 

8 

214 

5.8 

20 

36 

10 

Va 

H 

26 

3 

10 

266 

8.3 

25 

36 

12 

Va 

Vs 

26 

3 

12 

318 

9.5 

HEATING  AND  VENTILATION 


147 


Nom. 
Rated 
H.P. 

Diam. 
Inc. 

Length  Shell 
feet        Inc. 

Heads 
Inc. 

Diam. 
No.     Inc. 

Length 
feet 

Heat 

Surf, 
sq.  ft. 

Grate 
Surf 
sq.  ft. 

30 

40 

12 

Va 

H 

34 

3 

12 

404 

.12 

35 

42 

12 

% 

7-16 

40 

3 

12 

464 

12.8 

40 

46 

12 

9-32 

7-16 

42 

3 

12 

491 

14.6. 

45 

48 

12 

9-32 

7-16 

48 

3 

12 

551 

15.3 

50 

48 

14 

5-16 

7-16 

40 

3/2 

14 

630 

16. 

55 

52 

14 

5-16 

y» 

44 

sy2 

14 

693 

16.7 

60 

54 

14 

5-16 

'A 

46 

3/2 

14 

721 

18. 

70 

54 

16 

5-16 

y* 

40 

4 

16 

817 

20.8 

75 

60 

14 

11-32 

V2 

62 

3/2 

14 

940 

21.5 

85 

60 

16 

11-32 

A 

52 

4 

16 

1045 

22.2 

100 

66 

16 

Vs 

V* 

64 

4 

16 

1265 

25. 

125 

72 

16 

7-16 

y* 

82 

4 

16 

1578 

29.5 

150 

72 

18 

7-16 

V2 

82 

4 

18 

1775 

36.5 

The  size  and  location  of  the  boiler  pit  and  other 
minor  details  should  be  left  to  the  discretion  of 
the  heating  contractor.' 


CHIMNEYS. 
A  necessary  adjunct  to  the  boiler  will  be  the  Chimney 

,■-.«'-.  .  the    Lungs 

chimney,  which  is  required  for  two  purposes :  to  of  Building 
produce  the  necessary  draught  for  the  proper 
combustion  of  fuel  and  to  furnish  a  means  of 
discharging  noxious  products  of  combustion  high 
in  the  air.  In  other  words,  the  chimney  is  the 
lungs  of  the  building.  In  countries  like  France 
and  Germany,  where  waste  is  a  social  or  com- 
mercial crime,  no  building  may  be  erected  with- 
out the  height  and  area  of  the  chimney  being 
passed  upon  by  an  official  board.  There  is  no 
more  important  feature  in  a  house,  nor  one  that 
will  cause  greater  loss  than  an  improperly  built 
chimney,  or  effect  greater  saving  than  a  correctly 


148  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

built  one — no  matter  what  kind  of  heating  de- 
vice or  fuel  be  used.     The  burning  coal  must  get 
the  correct  amount  of  air  it  decomposes  in  order 
to  throw  off  the  proper  amount  of  heat. 
Fiue  Area.  The  value  of  a  chimney  flue  depends  on  its 

area  and  height.  It  is  better  to  have  a  chimney 
flue  generous  in  area  and  height,  than  to  build  it 
too  small,  for  a  flue  can  be  choked  down  by 
dampers  if  the  draught  be  too  strong,  but  if  it 
be  too  small  it  is  always  a  failure.  Improper 
draughts  often  may  be  corrected  by  a  change  of 
coal;  large  or  coarse  coal  being  employed  to 
strengthen  the  draught  and  small  coal  to  retard  it. 
All  chimneys  should  extend  above  the  highest 
part  of  the  roof  and  be  topped  with  a  shifting 
cowl  that  will  turn  the  outlet  away  from  the  ad- 
verse air  currents  and  thereby  promote  better 
draught.  A  round  chimney  is  a  better  form  than 
a  square  one,  and  a  straight  flue  better  than  a 
tapering  one.  Most  chimneys  are  built  of  brick, 
lined  with  vitrified  flues.  In  constructing  a  chim- 
ney four  feet  or  more  in  diameter  it  is  cheaper  to 
build  it  circular  with  a  straight  batter  on  the  out- 
side. 

Chimneys  of  great  height  are  not  built  uniform 
in  size  from  top  to  bottom  nor  with  a  uniformly 
varying  thickness  of  wall.  Instead,  the  wall,  heav- 
iest at  the  base,  is  reduced  by  a  series  of  steps 
as  it  ascends.  Large  chimneys  are  built  with  an 
outer  stack  and  an  inner  tube  or  core,  indepen- 
dent of  the  outer  one,  with  an  air  space  between. 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATION  149 

Many  engineers  extend  the  inside  core,  which  is 
designed  for  fire  safety,  only  to  a  height  of  forty 
or  fifty  feet.  All  chimney  flues  should  be  ample 
in  size,  should  start  at  a  point  three  or  four  feet 
below  the  smoke-pipe  entrance,  and  should  have 
clean-out  doors  at  the  bottom  for  the  removal  of 
dust  and  soot. 

The  size  of  flue   required  may  be  calculated 
from  the  following  table : 

Total    contents  Aver,    of    direct     Size    of     Diam.    Brick 

of  building  radiation  in  flues  in         of        flues 

in  cu.  ft.  sq.  ft.  sq.  ft.       round  inside 

10,000  to  20,000  200  to    400  8^x8^  8      8x8 

25,000  to  50,000  450  to    900  8^x13  10      8x12 

60,000  to  100,000  1000  to  1600  13x13  12  12x12 

100,000  to  150,000  1600  to  3000  18x18  16  16x16 

FUEL. 
The  value  of  fuel  is  estimated  by  the  number  F»el 

J  Values. 

of  heat  units  generated  by  its  combustion.  The 
fuels  generally  used  in  heating  are  composed  of 
carbon,  hydrogen  and  ash,  with  sometimes  small 
quantities  of  other  substances  not  materially  af- 
fecting its  value.  Anthracite  coal,  when  not  freely 
mixed  with  ash,  produces  14.70  heat  units;  semi- 
bituminous  coal,  13.70  heat  units,  and  soft  coal, 
from  12  to  13  heat  units.  Slack,  the  screenings 
from  coal,  burned  by  means  of  a  grate  glower 
adapted  for  that  purpose,  is  nearly  equal  in  value 
of  combustion  to  regular  coal,  but  its  percentage 
of  refuse  is  greater.  In  reckoning  the  cost  of 
fuel,  it  may  safely  be  assumed  that  the  intensity 


150        MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

of  the  fire  will  be  nearly  the  same  for  all  kinds 
of  combustibles  under  like  conditions. 

PIPING  FOR   STEAM   HEATING  PLANT. 

Retumypi  e  ^  single  return  pipe  system,  utilizing  the  same 

system.  pjpe  for  fresh  steam  and  its  return  to  the  boiler 

after  condensation,  may  be  cheaper  to  install,  but 
it  has  the  disadvantage  of  liability  to  sudden  stop- 
page because  of  the  steam  and  water  constantly 
flowing  through  the  same  pipe  in  opposite  direc- 
tions. Substituting  for  the  one-pipe  return  sys- 
tem a  two-pipe  gravity  system  will  assure  more 
satisfactory  results.  In  the  latter  system,  steam 
flows  from  the  boiler  through  risers  and  is  con- 
veyed to  the  radiators  by  suitable  steam  branches, 
and  the  water  formed  by  condensed  steam  travels 
back  to  the  boiler  by  means  of  a  small  con- 
densation tube. 

The  large  branches  conveying  steam  to  the  ra- 
diator are  placed  in  a  horizontal  position,  except 
where  the  radiator  is  a  considerable  distance  from 
.the  riser.  In  this  case  the  branch  is  so  inclined 
that  the  condensation  water  within  it  will  flow 
to  the  radiator,  at  which  point  it  is  emptied  by  a 
small  relief  pipe  into  the  return  branch,  to  pre- 
vent water  from  accumulating  in  the  radiator. 
The  return  pipe,  through  which  all  condensation- 
water  is  returned  to  the  boiler,  is  so  inclined  that 
all  water  will  flow  back  by  gravity  to  the  boiler, 
to  be  again  converted  into  steam.  Widely  adver- 
tised exhaust  and  vacuum  systems,  utilizing  the 


/ 

HEATING  AND  VENTILATION  151 

waste  steam,  are  usually  costly,  as  they  entail  the 
expense  of  installing  high-priced  patented  appa- 
ratus. 

The  gravity  system  just  described  will  ire- 
quire  pipe  coils  or  radiators  with  piping,  and 
piped  connections  for  the  steam  mains  and  re- 
turns. Genuine  wrought-iron  pipe  endures  long- 
est and  is  by  far  the  best  material  to  employ. 
There  are  scores  of  good  connections  on  the  mar- 
ket, but  valveless  ones  are  the  most  desirable.  The 
radiators  in  common  use  are  made  of  cast-iron. 
Double  column  radiators  -offer  the  most  exposed 
heating  surface  and  therefore  give  the  most  heat. 
A  light-weight  pressed-metal  radiator  that  is 
easily  attached  to  the  wall,  and,  because  of  its 
smooth  surface,  easily  cleaned,  has  recently  come 
to  notice,  but  sufficient  time,  however,  has  not 
elapsed  to  test  thoroughly  its  durability. 

VENTILATION. 

Ventilation  as  applied  to  a  theatre  is  the  proc- 
ess of  supplying  an  adequate  amount  of  fresh 
air,  warmed  or  cooled  to  a  proper  temperature, 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  air  circulation  will  be 
constant  and  thorough  in  all  parts  of  the  audi- 
torium without  the  creation  of  draughts. 

The  most  important  elements  of  ventilation  are   Motion  and 

1  1  1  r  1  •  i«  Coolness 

motion,  coolness  and  a  prc»per  degree  of  humidity   Necessary 
and  freshness.    Cross  ventilation,  too,  is  essential 
whenever  practicable.     Air  should  never  be  al- 
lowed to  become  stagnant.   Vitiated  or  overheated 


152  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

air  produces  drowsiness  and  dullness  of  the  men- 
tal faculties.  While  our  respiratory  organs  are 
naturally  developed  for  a  life  in  the  open  air, 
advanced  civilization  has  reversed  this  condition, 
and  we  are  forced  to  provide  artificial  means  to 
correct  the  evil  effects  produced  by  confined 
areas. 
Composition  The  primary  object  of  ventilation  is  the  re- 

moval of  vitiated  air  and  the  substitution  of  fresh 
air,  and  this  may  be  done  by  natural  or  mechani- 
cal means.  The  average  person  consumes  in  six- 
teen respirations  about  a  cubic  foot  of  air  per 
minute.  This  air,  at  a  temperature  and  humidity 
of  70  degrees,  is  composed  of  about  one-fifth 
oxygen  and  four-fifths  nitrogen.  By  the  process 
of  respiration  about  one-fifth,  or  twenty  per  cent, 
of  the  oxygen  is  lost  in  the  formation  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas.  Air  thus  vitiated  and  constantly 
diffused  throughout  the  auditorium  is  wholly  un- 
.    fit  for  use. 

Were  it  possible  to  expel  the  carbonic  acid  gas 
from  the  auditorium  without  taking  large  quanti- 
ties of  otherwise  pure  air  with  it  the  problem  of 
ventilation  would  be  simplified.'  Because  of  the 
rapid  diffusion  of  carbonic  acid  gas  it  is  neces- 
•  sary,  in  order  to  maintain  a  safe  atmospheric 
value  in  the  auditorium,  to  flood  it  with  freshened 
air.  Good  country  air  contains  about  four  parts 
of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  every  10,000  parts.  If  a 
standard  of  double  this  amount,  say  about  eight 
parts  of  carbonic  acid  gas  in    10,000,  could  be 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATION  153 

maintained  in  a  theatre  it  would  be  considered 
fairly  satisfactory.  The  amount  of  fresh  air  re- 
quired for  a  theatre  is  from  1500  to  2000  cubic 
feet  per  hour  per  person. 

The  manner  in  which  fresh  air  is  supplied  to  JJ^jf^*}1 
an  auditorium  is  more  important  than  the  amount  impor*ant- 
of  supply,  as  air  that  traverses  a  room  without 
reaching  the  breathing  zone  is  of  no  practical 
value.  One  thousand  cubic  feet  of  air  well  dis- 
tributed is  worth  ten  times  that  amount  intro- 
duced without  mixing  with  the  air  in  the  breath- 
ing zone. 

Few  theatre  patrons  realize  that  they  inhale  for 
about  three  hours  the  vitiated  exhalations  of  those 
seated  about  them.  Many  of  them  are  fastidious 
persons  who  insist  upon  drinking  filtered  water 
from  sanitary  cups,  and  yet  they  do  not  object 
to  paying  for  seats  in  a  germ-laden  atmosphere 
often  so  foul  that  it  gives  off  .an  offensive  odor. 

The  importance  of  coolness  in  temperature  is  JfJgJJJSJ 
usually  as  little  appreciated  as  the  importance  of 
motion.  A  water  spray  to  cleanse  the  air  before 
it  is  introduced  into  the  auditorium  has  a  bene- 
ficial effect  on  the  comfort  of  theatre  patrons,  as 
it  serves  to  extract  dust  from  the  air  that  may 
irritate  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  respiratory 
organs,  making  it  susceptible  to  disease  germs. 
A  water  spray  also  increases  the  amount  of  hu- 
midity in  the  air,  thereby  rendering  it  cooler  in 
the  warm  summer  months.  If  the  water  of  the 
spray  also  be  artificially  cooled,  the  air  passing 


Infiltration. 


Natural 
System  for 
Small  Houses. 


154  MODERN   THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

through  it  will  naturally  be  rendered  still  cooler, 
change  of  jn  theatres  heated  by  direct  radiation,  where 

freshened  air  is  not  mechanically  supplied,  there 
will  be  a  natural  change  of  air  amounting  to  from 
one  to  three  complete  renewals  per  hour,  because 
of  air  infiltration.  The  quantity  of  air  thus  in- 
troduced depends  largely  on  the  arrangement, 
character  and  location  of  the  various  openings. 

Small  theatres  may  be  reasonably  well  venti- 
lated by  means  of  exhaust  ventilators.  For  addi- 
tional ventilation  in  the  winter  months,  a  heavy 
galvanized-iron  smoke  flue,  set  like  a  core  in  the 
center  of  a  large  chimney,  may  be  employed.  The 
heat  rising  through  the  inner  core  will  create  an 
upward  draught  that  will  carry  off  the  vitiated 
air  through  the  outer  space  surrounding  the  core 
as  rapidly  as  it  is  admitted  through  outlets  from 
the  auditorium.  For  larger  theatres,  or  for  per- 
fect ventilation  in  smaller  ones,  any  so-called 
natural  system  of  ventilation  is  about  as  good 
as  no  system  at  all. 

To  understand  properly  ventilation  a  knowl- 
edge of  air  circulation  is  necessary.  The  effect 
of  heat  on  air  is  to  increase  its  volume  and  dimin- 
ish its  density.  Heated  or  vitiated  air  rises  be- 
cause of  this  lessened  density,  and  the  simplest 
method  of  exhausting  such  air  is  by  means  of 
mechanical  exhaust  ventilators  installed  in  the 
ceiling.  There  are  many  forms  of  these  auto- 
matic ventilators,  but  the  best  in  common  use  is 
the  siphon  type.   A  reliable  means  also  in  exhaust 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATION  155 

ventilation  is  a  propeller  fan  encased  in  a  pent- 
house equipped  with  a  shutter  arrangement  that 
closes  and  overlaps  by  gravity  and  opens  with 
the  force  of  the  outgoing  air  current.  If  it  be 
necessary  to  employ  a  duct  to  convey  exhausted 
air  from  the  blower  or  fan  to  the  outside  air 
the  duct  must  be  equal  in  diameter  to  the  cross- 
section  of  the  fan. 

As  vitiated  air  is  expelled  from  the  auditorium 
by  blowers  or  fans,  a  lower  pressure  is  created  in 
the  audience  hall  than  that  which  exists  outside, 
and  fresh  air  will  naturally  rush  in  through  the 
doors,  and  fresh  air  openings  to  replace  what  is 
forced  out.  While  this  may  be  very  satisfactory 
in  the  summer  months,  the  draughts  of  cold  air 
would  be  decidedly  uncomfortable  in  the  colder 
months.  This  in  a  measure  may  be  corrected  by 
the  introduction  of  fresh  air  through  a  lobby 
heated  by  radiators  or  through  fresh  air  inlets 
conveniently  arranged  behind  wall  radiators. 

However,  the  best  system  for  heating  and  ven-  The  Plenum 
tilating  a  theatre  is  the  one  termed  the  plenum 
or  forced-draught  system,  where  the  air  is  taken 
from  the  outside  into  an  isolated  chamber,  there 
heated  or  cooled  for  use,  and  forced  by  blower 
fans  into  the  auditorium. 

This  chamber  may  be  established  either  at  the 
top  of  the  auditorium,  or  in  the  basement  under- 
neath as  shown  on  the  heating  diagram  on  Page 
145.  Its  adoption  entails  a  modification  of  the 
direct    radiation    system,    combined    with    other 


156 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Washing 
the  Air. 


methods,  and  provides  heating  and  ventilation 
simultaneously.  It  also  admits  of  a  mechanical 
provision  for-  washing  the  air  before  it  is  blown 
into  the  auditorium. 

In  such  a  system  the  fresh  air  is  drawn  from 
the  outer  air  through  a  fresh  air  inlet,  composed 
of  louvers  or  shutters  that  may  be  closed  by  a 
damper,  the  opening  itself  being  proportionate 
in  size  to  that  of  the  fan  and  the  capacity  of  the 
theatre.  It  is  better,  if  possible,  to  locate  this  inlet 
high  enough  above  ground  to  prevent  the  outside 
dust  from  entering  it.  The  air  is  then  passed  by  suc- 
tion through  an  inclosed  dry  screen  air  filter  to 
specially  designed  radiators  in  winter,  and  in  sum- 
mer over  an  improvised  ice  box  containing  large 
cakes  of  ice.  After  being  conditioned  in  this 
manner  it  is  forced  by  the  same  paddlewheel  fan 
into  galvanized  iron  ducts  that  lead  to  the  audi- 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATION  157 

ence  hall.  In  some  systems  the  air  is  washed  by 
a  water  spray,  heated  in  winter  and  cooled  in 
summer. 

To  prevent  draughts,  the  air  is  admitted  into  g'augh*?* 
the  auditorium  through  tiny  covered  mushroom 
outlets  installed  beneath  the  seats.  There  are  sev- 
eral large  firms  that  install  this  air-conditioning 
outfit  complete,  but  a  home-devised  arrangement 
of  the  description  indicated  on  the  before  men- 
tioned  diagram   will   answer  the   same   purpose. 

To  construct  and  equip  this  home-made  plenum 
chamber,  have  a  tinsmith  make  a  correctly  sized 
set  of  galvanized-iron  shutters  or  louvers  regu- 
lated by  an  ordinary  damper,  and  install  it,  cov- 
ered by  a  coarse  wire  netting,  in  the  outer  wall 
at  the  point  indicated  in  the  diagram.  Then 
partition  off  a  space  for  the  installation  of  an  air 
filter.  This  consists  of  two  rows  of  circular 
wood  uprights  placed  five  feet  apart  and  secured 
to  the  floor  and  ceiling.  Fasten  from  top  to 
bottom  a  tightly  stretched  chicken  wire  netting 
in  zig-zag  fashion,  the  purpose  of  this  netting 
being  to  support  a  removable  cheesecloth  screen 
of  the  same  size  tacked  to  the  circular  uprights. 
These  cloth  filters  should  be  made  of  wide  strips 
of  cheesecloth  sewn  together,  and  are  intended  to 
lie  tightly  against  the  wire  netting.  The  total 
area  of  the  filtering  space  thus  exposed  should 
be  about  ten  times  the  sectional  area  of  the  louver 
inlet.    These  cloth  filter  sheets  should  be  removed 


158  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

at  intervals,  and  thoroughly  cleansed  and  dried 
before  being  replaced. 

Provide  two  openings,  one  above  the  other, 
leading  into  the  heating  and  cooling  spaces,  with 
a  non-heat-conducting  partition  between  the 
openings  regulated  by  a  damper  arrangement. 
In  the  upper  space  place  bent  cast-iron  heating 
coils  made  up  in  sections  for  the  purpose  of  heat- 
ing the  air  by  steam,  and  in  the  lower  space  place 
an  ordinary  zinc-lined  wooden  box  with  a  drip 
pipe  draining  it.  In  the  winter  heat  is  admitted 
to  any  desired  number  of  sections  of  heat- 
ing coils,  to  give  a  temperature  of  from  60  to  70 
degrees  to  the  filtered  air.  In  the  summer  the 
filtered  air  is  passed  directly  through  the  lower 
space  over  cakes  of  ice  deposited  in  the  ice  box 
Should  heat  at  any  time  be  desired,  a  portion  of 
the  filtered  air  may  be  admitted  through  the 
space  above,  heated  or  not,  as  the  conditions 
require, 
increasing  If  the  humidity  of  the  air  is  to  be  increased. 

the  Humidity  .      J        \ 

of  the  Air.  as  is  often  desirable  m  cold  weather,  the  heating 
engineer  should  attach  to  the  top  of  a  heater 
pipe,  a  long,  shallow,  open  cast-iron  receptacle 
filled  with  water  to  moisten  the  air  by  evapora- 
tion. The  alternative  is  to  install  a  standard 
humidifier,  a  costly  fixture.  At  a  temperature 
of  70  degrees  humidity  at  from  40  to  50  degrees 
is  most  pleasant. 

After  the  air  is  properly  conditioned  and  blown 
into  the  auditorium  through  parallel  ducts  and 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATION  159 

the  tiny  mushroom  outlets,  it  will  circulate  to- 
ward the  stage,  as  shown  on  the  diagram.  Reach- 
ing the  stage  opening  it  will  encounter  a  cooler 
current  supplied  for  stage  heating  by  direct  radi- 
ation, and  then  will  curve  upward  as  indicated  by 
the  small  arrows,  and  escape  through  ceiling  ven- 
tilators or  main  outlets  provided  for  that  purpose. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  regulate  the  tempera-  TlmUleratSre°f 
ture  introduced  so  that  the  air  supplied  on  the 
stage  will  form  a  cooler  air  blanket  than  that 
furnished  to  the  auditorium,  thereby  insuring  a 
circulation  of  conditioned  air  in  the  audience  hall. 
A  proper  distribution  of  mushroom  floor  vents  on 
the  main  floor  will  prevent  appreciable  draughts, 
and  horizontally-placed  vents  in  the  balcony  risers 
will  effect  the  same  result  in  that  section.  No 
movement  of  air  introduced  into  the  auditorium 
should  exceed  two  feet  per  second  to  be  comfort- 
able to  the  patrons. 


Fig.    1 


Fig.   4 


Fig.    2 


Fig.    5 


Fig.    3 


Fig.    6 


and 


Two  Series  of  Photographs  of  the  Sound  and  Its  Reflections  in  the  New  Theatre — 
Figs.  1  to  3  Before,  Figs.  4  to  6  After  the  Installation  of  the  Canopy  in  the  Ceil- 
ing. The  Effect  of  the  Canopy  in  Protecting  the  Balcony,  Foyer  Chairs,  Boxes, 
and  the  Orchestra  Chairs  Back  of  Row  L  is  Shown  by  Comparing  Figures  5 
6  with  Figures  1  and  3 
By  Courtesy  of  Professor  Wallace  C.   Sabine,   Harvard   University. 

160 


CHAPTER  XL 

ACOUSTICS. 

FROM  the  early  Greek  days  down  to  a  com- 
paratively recent  time  the  problem  of  thea- 
tre acoustics  has  been  a  perplexing  one. 
Whether  or  not  the  Greeks  were  familiar  with 
the  theory  and  laws  of  acoustics  is  a  much  dis- 
puted question.  That  the  Greek  theatres  had 
excellent  practical  acoustics  there  can  be  no 
doubt,  but  this  may  have  been  due  to  habitual 
adherence  to  primitive  conditions  logically  de- 
veloped into  grand  form,  rather  than  to  any 
studied  application  of  acoustic  laws  in  their  build- 
ing operations.  Certain  it  is  that  the  Greek  thea- 
tre had  no  walls  to  reflect  sound,  although  many 
authorities  claim  that  inverted  vases  of  varying 
size  were  used  instead  to  intensify  sound  and  in- 
crease its  volume. 

Centuries  later,  Charles  Gamier,  the  architect   Definite 
who  built  the  famous  Paris  Opera  House,  when    Acoustics, 
questioned  as  to  the  manner  in  which  he  obtained 
such  perfect  acoustics,   replied :    "I  just  trusted 
to  luck."     Today,    one  need   not  trust   to  luck.    • 
Experts  understand  certain  well-defined  rules  of 
acoustics,  which,  when  properly  applied,  produce 
uniformly  good  results. 

The  audibility  of  sounds  depends  upon  the 
loudness,  distinctness,  and  the  quality  of  the  ef- 
fect produced  by  them.     There  is  always  plenty 

161 


162  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

of  sound  in  any  auditorium,  but  the  difficulty  is 
to  regulate  it.  Sound  waves  radiate  from  their 
source  in  all  directions  in  the  manner  of  a  con- 
stantly expanding  sphere.  The  tones  strike  the 
ceiling  and  walls  solidly  and  rebound  to  the  audi- 
tor within  a  small  fraction  of  a  second.  If  the 
auditorium  be  properly  proportioned  the  reflected 
sound  waves  will  be  received  almost  simulta- 
neously and  in  audible  unison  with  the  direct 
sound.  As  a  result,  the  audience,  in  what  are 
usually  considered  the  worst  seats,  hear  quite  as 
distinctly  as  those  in  the  best  seats. 

Given  the  size  and  shape  of  an  auditorium  and 
the  materials  of  which  its  walls  are  composed 
it  is  now  possible  to  determine  accurately  before- 
hand its  acoustic  value.  The  acoustic  require- 
ments for  an  opera  house  and  for  a  regular  thea- 
tre differ  greatly,  because  of  their  different  for- 
mation. The  auditorium  of  an  opera  house  is 
larger  and  more  open  than  an  ordinary  theatre, 
and  has  shallow  tiers  of  boxes  instead  of  one  or 
two  deep  balconies. 
Human  voice        The  problem  to  be  considered  here  is  that  of 

Carries  About  x 

75  Feet.  the  theatre.    As  the  human  voice  is  capable  of 

projecting  distinguishable  words  only  about 
seventy-five  feet  without  expansion,  it  is  decid- 
edly important  that  the  auditor iu mm  be  confined 
within  that  area,  and  as  the  downward  waves 
are  largely  absorbed  instead  of  being  reflected, 
it  follows  that  the  height  of  the  ceiling  should  be 
about  half  that  distance.     Sound  naturally  loses 


ACOUSTICS  163 

in  volume  with  each  reflection,  diminishing  in 
its  intensity  until  it  crosses  what  scientists  term 
the  "threshold  of  audibility."  The  rapidity  with 
which  sound  dies  away  depends  upon  the  size  of 
the  room,  its  shape,  and  the  materials  employed 
for  furnishings,  walls  and  ceiling.  In  theatres 
the  magnitude  and  distribution  of  the  audience 
are  also  great  factors  in  the  propagation  or  ab- 
sorption of  sound. 

The  side  walls  of  an  auditorium  should  gradu- 
ally curve  inward  toward  the  proscenium  open- 
ing, the  rear  wall  following  the  curved  line  of  the 
seats.  The  side  walls  should  be  coved  at  the  top 
to  meet  the  ceiling,  and  all  walls  should  be  made 
reflective  and  not  absorbent  in  their  quality. 
Science  teaches  that  sound  waves  are  reflected 
in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  light  rays,  the 
angle  of  incidence  being  equal  to  the  angle  of 
reflection,  a  fact  that  argues  for  an  avoidance 
of  deep  recesses  and  curves.  Irregular  lines, 
sharp  turns  or  abrupt  curves,  like  the  deep  re- . 
cesses  usually  provided  for  stage  boxes,  should 
be  avoided.  High  ceilings,  too,  are  bad,  as  sound 
waves  carry  farther  if  not  hampered  by  vacant 
space  far  above  the  audience. 

Experiments  covering  a  number  of  years,  made  Brick  or 

1  fe  J  t       Hollow  Tile 

bv  Professor  Wallace  C.  Sabine  of  Harvard  Uni-  waiisBest 

Reflectors. 

versity,  noted  authority  on  acoustics,  demon- 
strated that  walls  have  either  constructive,  ab- 
sorbent or  reflective  power.  Professor  Sabine 
states   that  plastered  brick  or  hollow  tile   walls 


164  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

have  proven  the  best,  and  are  powerful  reflectors 
of  sound  with  very  slight  absorbing  power.  In 
this  connection  other  authorities  recommend  a 
plaster  composition  of  hydrated  lime,  slaked  and 
prepared  at  the  mills.  Professor  Sabine  in  dis- 
cussing the  various  conditions  that  offer  natural' 
obstruction  to  the  projection  of  the  human  voice, 
gives  a  comprehensive  analysis  of  the  problem 
in  the  following  manner : 
Analysis  of  "The  dissonant  (interference)  are  those  places 

the  Problem         t  v  J  r 

of  Acoustics,  in  which  sound  first  uttered  is  carried  up,  strikes 
against  the  solid  bodies  above  and,  reflected, 
checks  as  it  falls  the  rise  of  the  succeeding  sound. 
The  circumsonant  (reverberation)  are  those  in 
which  the  voice  spreading  in  all  directions  is  re- 
flected into  the  middle,  where  it  dissolves,  con- 
fusing the  case  endings,  and  dies  away  in  sounds 
of  indistinct  meaning.  The  resonant  (echo)  are 
those  in  which  the  voice  comes  in  contact  with 
some  solid  substance  and  is  reflected,  producing 
an  echo  and  making  the  case  terminations  double. 
The  consonant  are  those  in  which  the  voice  is 
supported  and  strengthened,  and  reaches  the  ear 
.     in  words  which  are  clear  and  distinct." 

Naturally  one  must  lessen  or  obviate,  so  far 
as  possible,  all  of  the  obstructions  described  in 
the  first  three  explanatory  phrases  above  quoted, 
and  strive  for  the  attainment  of  the  conditions 
enumerated  in  the  last  one.  The  difficulties  re- 
sulting from  interference  and  reverberation  never 
entered   into   the   acoustic   problem   in   the   open 


ACOUSTICS  165 

Greek  theatre,  with  its  large  unobstructed  area, 
nor  was  echo  a  serious  consideration  in  these  edi- 
fices, as  there  was  but  one  doubling  of  the  case 
endings.  In  modern  theatres  there  may  be  many 
echoes,  each  arriving  after  the  direct  sound  at  a 
different  interval  of  time,  and  less  distinguish- 
able and  therefore  more  disturbing. 

The  Little  Theatre  in  New  York  City,  with    Little  Theatre 

J  Specially 

an  auditorium  forty-eight  feet  long  and  forty-  j^jf^ 
nine  feet  wide,  and  with  a  ceiling  twenty-eight  Acoustics, 
feet  high  in  front  and  twenty-three  feet  high  in 
the  rear,  is  a  fine  example  of  a  theatre  especially 
designed  to  carry  the  delicate  shades  of  modu- 
lated tone  with  unusual  precision.  In  this  thea- 
tre, the  front  walls  on  either  side  of  the  pros- 
cenium opening  are  symmetrically  curved  and 
paneled,  and  the  rear  walls  follow  the  curved  line 
of  the  seats.  In  order  still  further  to  reduce  re- 
verberation, in  each  of  the  side  walls  are  installed 
three  6  by  13  foot  "acoustic  felt"  panels,  and  in 
the  rear  wall  seven  similar  panels,  two  being 
4  feet  5  inches  by  13  feet;  two  5  feet  by  10  feet; 
two  2  feet  by  4  feet,  and  one  8  feet  by  7  feet.  As 
will  be  seen  by  the  illustration  on  Page  167  there 
are  no  stage  boxes  to  lessen  or  destroy  sound. 

Professor  Sabine,  in  his  experiments  for  reme-    Photographing 

Sound  Waves. 

dying  the  faults  of  the  New  Century  Theatre, 
made  photographic  tests  of  its  sound  waves  be- 
fore and  after  correction.  (See  illustrations  pre- 
ceding this  chapter. )  To  make  these  photographs 
a  small  model  of  the  theatre  as  used,  the  actual 


166  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

sounds  and  their  echoes  being  photographed  by 
the  Toepler-Boyes-Foley  method  as  air  disturb- 
ances passing  through  it. 

The  reproductions  of  the  original  sound  waves 
and  the  new  sound  waves  after  a  remedial  canopy 
had  been  installed  in  the  ceiling  visually  illustrate 
the  possibility  of  acoustic  correction.  This  cano- 
py was  oval  in  shape  and  somewhat  larger  than 
the  ceiling  oval  which  it  replaced,  and  from  which 
originally  hung  the  central  chandelier.  It  pre- 
vented disturbing  sound  reflections,  and  Profes- 
sor Sabine  declares  that  since  this  correction  there 
are  few  theatres  of  its  size  and  capacity  in  Amer- 
ica as  free  from  sound  diffraction  as  this  one. 
Presence  of  The  presence  of  an  audience  in  a  theatre  usually 

improves  improves  its  acoustics.   Within  the  inclosing  walls 

Acoustics.  L  , 

of  an  auditorium,  where  the  distance  traveled  is 
not  tob  great,  the  voice,  rebounding  directly  from 
the  ceiling  oval  which  it  replaced,  and  from  which 
the  ceiling  and  side  walls,  arrives  almost  simul- 
taneously with  the  direct  sound,  each  spoken  syl- 
lable being  audibly  strengthened  as  a  single  sound 
by  the  resulting  "consonance." 


167 


U-vc 


168 


CHAPTER  XII. 

CONSTRUCTION. 

THE  correct  construction  of  a  theatre  is  a 
subject  for  serious  reflection.  Safety  being 
the  chief  essential,  only  reliable  fire-resist- 
ing materials  should  be  employed.  As  the  addi- 
tional cost  of  constructing  a  building  absolutely 
fireproof  is  considerably  less  than  ten  per  cent 
and  usually  not  more  than  six  per  cent  above 
erecting  it  non-fireproof,  the  rational  procedure 
is  clearly  evident.  The  saving  in  fire  insurance 
premiums  alone  will  soon  compensate  an  owner 
for  the  comparatively  trifling  addition  to  the  ini- 
tial expenditure.  Ignorance  of  the  relative  cost 
of  structural  materials  and  an  inborn  but  mis- 
taken sense  of  the  cheapness  of  wood  have  fos- 
tered an  erroneous  impression  that  rendering  a 
building  absolutely  fireproof  is  expensive. 

THE  STEEL  WORK. 
In    large    or    medium    sized    theatres    a   steel  The  steel 

°      t  Framework. 

framework  is  not  only  desirable  but  necessary. 
With  medium  steel,  the  kind  used  for  building 
construction,  a  force  of  70,000  pounds  is  needed 
to  break  a  rod  one  square  inch  in  cross  section, 
but  its  elastic  limit  will  not  stand  a  stress  of 
more  than  40,000  pounds.  In  designing  steel 
framework  a  margin  of  safety  must  be  allowed 
that  will  bring  the  weight  and  stress  well  within 
the  elastic  limit. 

169 


170  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

The  services  of  a  competent  engineer  will  be 
necessary  to  compute  this,  but  as  an  economic 
precaution  the  author  would  suggest  that  after 
the  steel  plan  has  been  prepared,  it  should  be 
checked  and  revised  by  an  outside  engineer  on  a 
contingent  fee  basis;  the  revising  engineer  re- 
ceives as  his  fee  a  percentage  on  any  saving  ef- 
fected without  sacrificing  either  the  strength  or 
utility  of  the  framework.  No  risk  will  be  in- 
curred in  such  a  procedure,  as  the  various  build- 
ing laws  in  this  country  more  than  amply  provide 
for  safe  steel  construction. 

This  steel  framework  should  include  uprights 
and  light  roof  trusses  spaced  from  sixteen  feet 
to  twenty  feet  apart,  center  to  center,  with  steel 
floor  beams,  balcony  trusses  and  supports.  Theo- 
retically the  shorter  the  spacing  of  trusses  the 
less  will  be  the  combined  weight  of  truss  and 
purlins  per  square  foot  of  covered  area,  but  on 
account  of  practical  limitations  in  size  of  mate- 
rials and  the  greater  cost  per  pound  for  manu- 
factured trusses  than  for  beams  or  purlins  the 
spacing  is  usually  regulated  as  above  stated. 
Cantilever  Balcony  trusses  should  be  supported  by  an  ap- 

plication of  the  cantilever  principle  and  not  by 
exposed  posts  or  columns.  Where  the  anchoring 
distance  is  not  sufficiently  long  for  a  direct  ap- 
plication of  this  principle  a  transverse  truss  sup- 
ported at  both  ends  by  columns  imbedded  in  the 
walls  should  be  employed  to  help  support  the 
overhang.     A  series  qf  small-diametered  (2  or  3 


CONSTRUCTION 


171 


Lally 
Columns. 


A  Novel 


inch)  steel  Lally  columns  encased  in  the  box  par- 
titions often  may  be  used  as  supports  for  the 
same  purpose. 

Steel  Lally  columns  are  the  simplest  and  cheap- 
est forms  of  steel  construction  known.  Origi- 
nally they  were  covered  by  a  patent  that  has 
since  expired.  They  consist  of  various  sized  steel 
tubing  (pipes)  filled  at  the  factory  with  a  strong 
mixture,  of  concrete  to  give  added  strength. 
Steel  Lally  columns  withstand  intense  heat  even 
without  extra  covering,  far  better  than  do  or- 
dinary fireproof -covered  steel  columns. 

An  ingenious  application  of  the  cantilever 
principle  is  indicated  in  the  diagram  illustrated  at  suPp°o"t. 
the  conclusion  of  this  chapter  showing  the  truss- 
ing and  support  of  the  balcony  designed  for  a 
theatre  with  the  auditorium  reversed.  Here  the 
anchorage  span  between  the  rear  wall  and  the 
transverse  truss  was  not  long  enough  to  counter- 
balance the  unsupported  overhang  of  the  balcony. 
It  therefore  became  necessary  to  contrive  some 
form  of  construction  that  would  support  the  bal- 
cony without  dependence  upon  the  masonry  walls. 
This  could  be  done  by  imbedding  and  anchoring 
the  balcony  upright  members  in  heavy  founda- 
tions extending  over  an  area  equal  to  that  of  the 
structure  to  be  supported.  These  reinforced 
foundations,  arranged  in  longitudinal  lections 
six  feet  wide  and  six  feet  deep  beneath  the  base- 
ment floor,  extend  from  the  rear  walls  forward 
to  a  point  immediately  below  the  extreme  front 


172 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Substitute  for 
Plentitude 
of  Steel. 


Sliding  Roof. 


of  the  balcony,  and  are  spaced  an  equal  distance 
from  the  side  walls,  and  sufficiently  far  apart  to 
receive  the  superior  upright  supports,  thereby 
providing  for  the  entire  structure  a  solid  base 
that  could  not  be  toppled  over  by  any  load  that 
might  be  placed  upon  it.  Where  intermediate 
Lally  columns  are  used  a  transverse  foundation 
connecting  the  two  main  foundations  should  be 
employed. 

In  the  present  condition  of  the  market,  with 
the  price  of  steel  more  than  doubled  because  of 
the  universal  engagement  of  American  steel 
plants  in  the  manufacture  of  munitions  for  the 
European  war,  it  might  be  profitable  to  eliminate 
all  steel  uprights  and  thereby  lessen  the  amount 
of  steel  framework,  substituting  for  the  uprights 
at  bearing  points,  brick  pilasters,  concrete  filled 
hollow  tile,  or  stock  Lally  columns,  and  employ- 
ing only  iron  beams  for  floors,  with  individual 
detached  balcony  and  roof  trusses. 

If  a  sliding  roof  be  adopted  the  trussed  roof 
framing  should  provide  for  a  clear  opening  and 
covering  this  opening  there  should  be  an  independ- 
ent framework  mounted  on  wheels  and  divis- 
ible in  two  sections.  The  construction  of  these 
movable  sections  should  be  light  and  arranged 
with  a  drip  gutter  around  their  base  to  carry  off 
rain  water  in  inclement  weather.  The  exposed 
flat  ends  of  each  hemisphere  of  the  sliding  sec- 
tion and  the  side  walls  of  the  well  formed  by  the 
permanent  roof  opening  should  be   ceiled   in  a 


CONSTRUCTION  173 

manner  to  conceal  all  structural  features  when 
the  sliding  roof  is  open. 

Before  the  excavation  begins,  the  steel  con-  Award  steel 
tract  should  be  awarded  to  a  reliable  firm  on  a 
competitive  basis,  at  a  ton  weight  price  including 
erection,  with  a  provision  that  the  total  cost  shall 
not  exceed  an  expressed  sum.  Payment  at  a 
weight  rate  automatically  regulates,  the  price  in 
case  of  additions  or  omissions.  A  competent 
clerk  of  the  works  can  easily  check  up  the  steel 
as  it  arrives,  and  the  architect  or  a  good  super- 
intendent can  supervise  and  pass  upon  its  con- 
struction, thus  eliminating  all  extra  profits  of  a 
general  contractor  for  a  service  he  does  not  per- 
form. 

The  American  Institute  of  Architects  advises  "Quantity 
the  awarding  of  all  building  contracts  direct  to  contract 
the  contractors  who  are  to  perform  the  work, 
and  recommends  that  all  such  contracts  be  made 
on  what  is  known  as  a  "quantity  basis."  With 
such  a  contract  the  architect  or  a  competent  su- 
perintendent employed  by  the  owner  can  properly 
safeguard  his  interests. 

This  is  the  manner  of  contract  universally 
employed  throughout  Europe,  and  it  is  the  only 
one  that  is  just  to  both  owner  and  contractor. 
A  "quantity  basis"  contract  tends  to  eliminate 
so  called  "extras,"  which  by  many  contractors 
are  considered  their  sole  source  of  profit.  Under 
its  provision  all  materials  measurable  are  paid 
for  on  a  measurement  basis  at  so  much  per  lineal, 


174  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

square  or  cubic  foot  (as  the  case  may  be),  when 
satisfactorily  completed.  ,  Articles  not  conven- 
iently measurable  are  paid  for  at  fixed  unit  prices 
when  installed  complete.  The  Contractor  fixes 
a  limit  sum  not  to  be  exceeded  in  his  contract, 
and  specifies  a  payment  price  on  a  measurement 
or.  unit  basis. 
Avoid  Extra  work  or  omissions  due  to  changes  in 

"Extras."  & 

the  plans  are  paid  for  according  to  these  sched- 
uled quantity  prices,  thus  eliminating  so-called 
"extras."  The  maximum  limit  sum  therefore  can 
be  affected  only  by  gross  additions  made  to  the 
plans  or  specifications.  Persons  inexperienced  in 
building  are  not  likely  to  know  that  trade  unions 
demand  that  all  extra  work  required  must  be 
performed  by  the  contractor  already  engaged  on 
the  job  for  that  class  of  work.  This  is  an  im- 
perative rule  that  places  the  owner  at  the  mercy 
of  the  contractor  in  fixing  prices  for  extra  work. 

EXCAVATION. 

The  cheapest  and  best  method  is  to  award  ex- 
cavating contracts  to  an  excavator  at  a  cubic 
yard  price.  Separate  cubic  yard  prices  should 
be  arranged  for  rock  excavation  including  blast- 
ing and  for  ordinary  excavation,  with  various 
prices  for  carting  away  or  depositing  excavated 
material.  By  custom  and  usage  all  rock  or  other 
material  excavated  belongs  to  the  contractor,  un- 
less some  contrary  stipulation  be  made.  Provi- 
sion must  also  be  made  for  depositing  enough 


CONSTRUCTION  175 

excavated  earth  alongside  the  wall  trenches  for 
a  refill  upon  completion  of  the  walls.  For  ex- 
tensive excavations  requiring  special  machinery 
there  are  firms  who  make  a  specialty  of  this 
class  of  work  and  have  an  elaborate  equipment 
for  performing  it. 

FOUNDATION. 

The  contract  for  the  foundations,  all  concret- 
ing, construction  of  walls,  floors,  roof,  and  all 
plastering,  should  be  given  to  a  mason  builder 
on  the  same  "quantity  basis."  The  foundations 
are  the  most  important  part  of  any  building,  and 
should  be  the  most  substantial.  The  object  of 
the  foundation  is  to  distribute  the  weight  of  the 
structure  evenly  over  the  area  upon  which  it 
stands  and  thus  avoid  likelihood  of  vertical  settle- 
ments. For  this  reason  the  higher  the  building 
is  to  be,  the  wider  and  deeper  the  supports  or 
footings  for  the  foundation  must  be.  If  soft  or 
yielding  ground  is  encountered  piling  should  be 
resorted,  to  in  order  to  carry  the  weight  of  the 
building  on  a  more  solid  basis. 

Footings  may  be  of  iron,  timber,  large  flat  build-  Footings. 
ing  stones  laid  directly  on  the  ground  or  in  a 
bed  of  concrete,  or  they  may  be  concrete  alone  or 
concrete  and  stepped-up  brickwork.  For  ordi- 
nary purposes  good  concrete,  from  one  to  two 
feet  in  thickness,  laid  in  simple  trenches  dug  in 
firm  earth  with  the  sides  extending  six  inches 
beyond  the  lines  of  the  foundation  wall  will  an- 


176 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Slope 
Footings. 


Spread 
Footings. 


Piles. 


swer.  These  footings  should  be  a  foot  or  two  in 
thickness  and  sunk  below  the  frost  line  four  or  five 
feet  to  prevent  upheavals  from  extreme  frost. 

Footing  courses  built  on  slopes,  especially  clay 
slopes,  are  always  liable  to  slide,  and  should  be 
formed  in  steps  of  as  long  sections  as  possible, 
great  care  being  exercised  to  secure  a  perfect 
bond  at  the  stepping  places. 

Where  the  foundation  walls  rest  partly  on 
solid  rock  and  partly  on  artificial  footings  great 
care  should  be  taken  to  make  all  footings  equally 
firm  with  the  rock  so  as  to  prevent  unequal  sag- 
ging. 

It  is  often  found  that  compressible  soils,  even 
alluvium  and  soft  clay,  will  bear  from  one  to  two 
tons  per  square  foot  with  but  little  settlement, 
yet  under  a  steady  load  a  uniform  settlement  will 
occur.  It  is  often  cheaper  therefore  to  employ 
spread  footings  over  a  large  area  than  it  is  to 
drive  piles.  These  spread  footings  may  be  built 
either  of  concrete  reinforced  with  tension  rods  or 
with  I  beams  or  old  railroad  iron  imbedded  in 
concrete  as  a  base.  Spread  footings  are  thicker 
than  ordinary  footings  and  taper  inward  from  the 
bottom  as  they  ascend.  If  the  ground  be  spongy 
or  bad  it  may  be  necessary  to  drive  piles  in  addi- 
tion, in  which  case  an  engineer  should  be  con- 
sulted. 

All  footings  should  be  properly  proportioned 
to  the  weight  they  are  designed  to  carry,  whether 
continuous  as  in  a  foundation  wall  or  isolated  as 


CONSTRUCTION  177 

when  divided  into  piers.  The  pressure  on  the 
soil  per  square  foot  should  be  equal  where  the 
soil  is  uniform,  and  if  the  soil  be  uneven  in  its 
bearing  power  the  footings  should  be  proportioned 
to  the  weight  properly  distributed  to  insure  uni- 
form settlement. 

The  foundation  walls  above  the  footing  courses  *^sdation 
are  usually  stone,  brick  or  concrete.  The  thick- 
ness of  the  foundation  wall  is  usually  controlled 
by  building  laws.  For  a  twelve-inch  wall,  stone 
or  brick  foundation  walls  should  be  not  less  than 
sixteen  inches  thick.  If  the  walls  of  the  building 
are  to  be  of  twelve-inch  hollow  tile  as  recom- 
mended here,  a  twelve-inch  concrete  foundation 
wall  will  be  sufficient,  as  the  concrete  will  be 
denser  in  its  composition  than  the  building  tile 
and  therefore  sufficient  for  sustaining  the  lighter 
walls  above. 

Unless  there  is  plenty  of  cheap  building  stone 
in  the  vicinity  a  concrete  foundation  wall  laid  in 
temporary  wood  forms  will  be  the  cheapest  kind. 
The  footings  for  such  a  wall  will  not  require  any 
forms,  but  may  be  formed  by  raw  concrete 
dumped  into  smoothly  dug  trenches. 

An  allowance  is  made  by  custom  in  wall  meas- 
urement for  doors,  windows  and  other  openings, 
This  rule  varies  in  different  localities,  being  in 
some  communities  one-half  and  in  others  one- 
third  of  the  covered  area. 


178  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

,  EXTERIOR  WALLS. 

The  best  known  and  cheapest  fireproof  mate- 
rial for  outer  walls  is  some  form  of  hollow  build- 
ing tile  sufficiently  heavy  to  withstand  water 
shock  from  a  high  pressure  fire  hose.  This  build- 
ing tile  is  made  in  blocks  of  varying  thickness, 
but  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters 
allow  a  preferential  insurance  rate  for  walls 
formed  twelve  inches  thick.  Blocks  of  this  thick- 
ness measure  twelve  inches  by  twelve  inches  by 
twelve  inches,  and  come  plain  or  scored  on  one  or 
both  sides  for  the  application  of  stucco  or  plaster. 
If  this  form  of  block  is  used  it  will  be  better  for 
the  sake  of  appearance  to  stucco  the  outer  sur- 
face of  the  building  either  with  a  cheap  rough 
splatter-dash  coat  or  a  smooth  troweled  surface. 
Stucco  may  be  rendered  any  color  by  the  addi- 
tion of  coloring  mixtures.  The  same  deductions 
are  made  for  stucco  openings  a*  for  wall 
openings. 
Textile.  A  finished-face  tile  known  as  "textile/'  that 

requires  no  stucco,  is  also  made  by  standard 
firms  in  twelve  inch  by  twelve  inch  by  six  inch 
sizes.  This  block,  when  laid  with  rodded  or 
raised  mortar  joints,  presents  a  much  better  ap- 
pearance than  brick  and  costs  but  a  trifle  more 
than  the  ordinary  hollow  tile  scored  for  stucco. 
There  is  also  a  tapestry-finished  block,  made  in 
another  form,  which  may  be  used  at  about  the 
same  cost. 


CONSTRUCTION  179 

All  of  these  vitrified  clay  products  are  of  the 
same  composition  as  ordinary  brick,  except  that 
in  the  process  of  manufacture  they  are  baked  in  * 

an  additional  degree  of  heat  to  render  them  more 
fire  resisting.  Building  tile  is  made  somewhat 
larger  than  brick  and  has  vertical  hollow  air 
chambers  between  its  exterior  surfaces.  The  size 
and  lightness  of  hollow  tile  makes  it  easier  to  lay 
than  brick,  and  its  hollow  cells  form  a  dryer  and 
warmer  wall  in  winter  and  a  cooler  one  in 
summer. 

Hollow  tile  can  be  laid  much  quicker  than  ^ho£® 
brick  and  costs  about  half  the  price  per  square  °nly- 
foot  to  lay.  If  care  be  taken  to  specify  that  only 
whole  blocks  be  employed,  with  corner,  jamb 
and  lintel  blocks  where  required,  a  good  brick- 
layer can  set  400  blocks  or  about  400  square  feet 
of  wall  in  a  day.  Ordinarily  much  time  is  lost 
in  patching  broken  blocks  where  no  such  provi- 
sion is  made,  and  200  blocks  are  considered  a 
good  day's  work.  If  the  blocks  be  ordered  on 
such  specifications  the  block  dealer  will  charge 
only  for  whole  blocks,  making  full  deduction  for 
blocks  arriving  on  the  premises  broken. 

Proving  their  fire-resisting  qualities,  whole 
rows  of  hollow  tile  building  walls  stood  plumb 
and  uninjured  at  the  recent  great  Baltimore  fire, 
while  brick  walls  lay  crumbled  in  ruins.  So,  too, 
like  gaunt  sentinels,  stood  scores  of  steel  Lally 
columns,  later  knocked  down  by  men  presumably 
employed  in  the  interest  of  steel  manufacturers. 


180 


A  Severe 
Test. 


Hollow  Tile 
as  Curtain 
Walls. 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

Another  striking  test  of  the  fire-resisting  prop- 
erties of  hollow  tile  was  supplied  by  former 
Fire  Chief  Edward  Croker  of  New  York  City,  1 
a  recognized  authority  on  such  matters.  Mr. 
Croker  erected  a  fireproof  bungalow  on  Long- 
Island,  with  hollow  tile  walls  and  hollow  tile 
floors,  and  invited  a  select  coterie  of  friends  to 
participate  in  a  housewarming.  The  guests  were 
served  with  the  customary  cocktail  in  a  sitting 
room  adjacent  to  the  dining  room  before  being 
ushered  into  the  latter  room  for  dinner.  Once  in  1 
the  dining  room,  the  door  between  the  rooms  was 
closed,  and  the  guests  enjoyed  undisturbed  for 
over  an  hour  the  refreshments  proffered.  At  the 
conclusion  of  dinner  they  were  bidden  by  the 
host  to  return  to  the  sitting  room  to  partake  of 
coffee. 

Imagine  their  surprise  upon  opening  the  door  of  ] 
the  sitting  room  to  find  in  that  room  nothing  but 
a  mass  of  charred  ruins.     While  the  guests  had! 
been  dining  Mr.   Croker's  servant,   acting  upon 
directions  previously  given,  had  gone  to  the  sit- 
ting room,  saturated  its  contents  thoroughly  with 
kerosene  and  ignited  them.     The  fire  had  con-j 
sumed  the  entire   furnishings  of  the  room  and 
burned  itself  out  while  the  people  in  the  very 
next  room  remained  entirely  unaware  of  what 
had  happened. 

In  a  steel-framed  building  the  exterior  walls 
are  usually  merely  substantial  curtain  walls  carry- 
ing comparatively  light  loads.    In  smaller  thea- 


CONSTRUCTION  181 

tres  where  no  steel  framing  is  employed,  these 
hollow  tiles  may  be  set  with  their  hollow  cham- 
bers vertical,  one  above  the  other,  and  at  all  bear- 
ing points  grouted  or  filled  with  a  strong  mix- 
ture of  liquid  concrete  through  these  vertical  cells 
to  form  concrete  pilasters.  When  the  concrete 
has  set,  monolithic  concrete  columns  extending 
from  the  foundation  base  and  capable  of  support- 
ing great  loads  are  the  result.  The  framework 
for  the  floors  and  balconies,  or  for  any  other 
structural  object,  may  be  inserted  into  and  rest 
upon  these  concrete  uprights. 

DIVISION  AND  PARTITION  WALLS. 

Division  wralls  should  be  laid  with  ordinary  interior  walls, 
scored  six-inch  hollow  tile  blocks  of  sufficient 
strength  to  withstand  the  ordinary  water  pres- 
sure from  fire  hose,  and  partition  walls  of  six 
or  four  inch  tile  partition  blocks,  or  even  thinner 
blocks  made  from  gypsum.  Where  long  stretches 
of  wall  occur,  gypsum  blocks  should  be  braced 
by  occasional  rods  or  angle  irons  extending  from 
the  floor  to  the  ceiling.  Gypsum  blocks  are  some- 
what cheaper  than  tile  partition  blocks.  Very 
light  partitions  may  be  built  also  of  expanded 
metal  or  self-centered  wire  lath,  covered  with 
plaster  on  both  sides.  All  of  the  above  mentioned 
blocks  will  permit  of  the  application  of  plaster 
direct.  Deductions  are  also  made  in  plastering 
contracts  for  openings. 


182  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

FLOORS. 

Good  floors  may  be  laid  in  concrete  slabs  be- 
tween steel  framing  by  any  of  the  standard  meth- 
ods, or  by  pouring  liquid  gypsum  over  squares 
of  wire  mesh.  In  each  instance  they  must  be  top- 
finished  with  a  hardening  compound  or  with  any 
one  of  a  dozen  different  floor  compositions.  The 
stage  floor  of  a  theatre  should  be  covered  with 
comb-grained  T.  &  G.  North  Carolina  pine  % 
inch  by  2^  inch,  and  all  traps  should  be  lined 
underneath  with  asbestos  boards  to  make  them 
fireproof. 
Avoid  stage   -      The   better  to   preserve  the  stage  floor   from 

Screws  in  ««i  111  1 

Floors.  wear,   scene  braces  and  the  like   should  not   be 

screwed  to  the  floor,  but  held  in  place  by  finishing- 
nails  partially  driven  into  the  stage  through  metal 
hinges  attached  to  the  braces.  Stage  screws  per- 
manently mar  a  finished  floor,  while  finishing 
nails  if  not  fully  driven  home  may  be  quickly  and 
easily  extracted  with  the  nail  pulling  clamp  of  a 
hammer. 

The  safe  live  load  for  all  theatre  floors  should 
be  as  follows : 

Lobby  and  Corridors 100  lbs.  to  the  square  foot 

Stairways    100 

Auditorium    80 

Balcony    80 

Stage    200   ^     ^      ? 

Scene  Docks 100 

Property   Room    150 

Dressing  Rooms   60 

Gridiron    60 

Roof   30   "     "      « 


CONSTRUCTION 


183 


This  table  should  be  consulted  before  designing 
steel  framing  for  the  various  floors  and  roof. 

Excellent  and  cheap  roof  structures  can  be  Cheap  Roofs, 
built  of  gypsum  blocks  laid  on  steel  purlins.  In 
the  absence  of  gypsum  blocks  a  four-inch  con- 
crete slab  may  be  used.  With  either  material  a 
"Barret  specification"  roofing  may  be  employed 
as  a  covering,  or  if  desired  for  appearance's  sake 
a  shingle  roof  may  be  nailed  directly  to  the  gyp- 
sum blocks. 

Emergency  stairways  indosed  within  fireproof  stairways, 
walls  should  be  composed  of  concrete,  with  steel 
tread  pieces  imbedded  in  the  edge  of  each  step. 
Elaborate  open  stairways  for  the  lobby  or  else- 
where should  have  marble  treads  and  risers  with 
a  marble  balustrade,  or  an  ornamental  iron  or 
bronze  railing.  If  concrete  trends  be  substituted 
for  marble  the  steps  should  be  covered  with  plain 
carpet.  Ornamental  stairs  should  be  purchased 
from  the  manufacturer  direct  and  installed  by 
the  mason-builder.- 

Exterior  windows   should  be  of  steel,   Hazed    windows  and 

9    &     m  Doors. 

with  wire  glass.  Steel  windows  come  in  a  variety 
of  shapes  and  sizes,  and  whether  ordered  directly 
from  the  manufacturer  or  not  these  windows 
should  be  installed  by  the  mason-builder  at  a 
price  agreed  upon  for  each  opening.  All  window 
sills  should  be  brick,  smoothly  covered  with  con- 
crete. The  door  frames  should  be  formed  of 
steel  channels,  with  or  without  a  trim.  It  is  r~\ 
optional  with  the  owner  whether  hardwood  doors 


184  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


or  steel  floors  be  employed,  for  there  is  a  wide 
range  in  the  cost  of  different  grades  of  doors. 
All  doors  and  windows  should  be  purchased  com- 
pletely fitted.  The  great  difference  between  the 
price  of  appropriate  steel  doors  and  equally  well 
appearing  hardwood  doors  and  the  slight  liability 
of  the  latter  to  fire  make  the  use  of  hardwood 
doors  most  excusable,  especially  where  insurance 
rates  are  not  materially  increased  by  their  use. 

Ceilings.  The  ceilings  of  a  theatre  auditorium  should  be 

hung  as  low  as  is  compatible  with  the  design,  in 
order  to  secure  good  acoustics  and  to  provide  a 
material  saving  in  heat.  The  basis  for  the  ceil- 
ing of  the  audience  hall  and  the  horizon  device 
on  the  stage  should  be  of  expanded  metal  or  self- 
centered  wire-lath  suspended  by  heavy  wires  from 
the  construction  trusses.  The  plaster,  whether 
ornamental  or  not,  should  be  applied  to  the  ex- 
panded metal  after  it  has  been  fixed  in  place.  The 
plastering  of  an  ordinary  interior  and  the  stucco- 
ing of  the  exterior  constitute  part  of  the  rough 
building  and  properly  belong  to  the  mason- 
builder. 

s°e1ciaaiistsf°r  -^11  work  demanding  special  contracts,  such  as 
heating,  ventilation  and  plumbing,  should  be 
awarded  independently  to  specialists  in  this  class 
of  work  rather  than  to  a  general  contractor,  who 
usually  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  its  in- 
stallation other  than  collect  an  additional  profit. 
The  architect  or  superintendent  should  be  relied 
upon  to  check  the  work.     In  addition  much  of 


CONSTRUCTION  185 

this  work  should  be  guaranteed  by  the  individual 
contractors  for  a  specified  time.  Unfortunately, 
trade  union  rules  and  customs  governing  several 
of  the  above  classes  of  work  prohibit  the  obtain- 
ing of  prices  on  a  "quantity  basis,"  and  the  old 
undesirable  system  of  "lump"  sum  bids  must  be 
adhered  to  in  such  contracts. 

Elevators,  not  generally  regarded  by  law  as 
exits,  are  frequently  installed  in  theatres.  These 
are  put  in  running  order  by  the  various  firms  who 
manufacture  them,  and  this  contract  should  be 
given  direct  to  the  maker  of  the  elevator  instead 
of  to  a  general  contractor. 

The  interior  decorating  of  a  fine  theatre  should  ^oration 
be  intrusted  to  a  recognized  firm  of  decorators 
in  preference  to  the  architect.  An  artistic  deco- 
rator better  understands  the  employment  of  art 
in  detail  than  most  architects,  whose  forte  is  the 
consideration  of  art  in  the  mass.  The  artistic 
decoration  of  a  theatre  should  not  cost  more  than 
$5,000  to  $6,000. 

The  chairs  also  should  be  ordered  direct  from 
the  manufacturers,  and  should  be  of  low-backed, 
tip-up  variety,  with  leather  or  imitation  leather 
upholstery  to  match  the  decorations. 

The  space  allotted  for  construction  in  this  vol-  Seating, 
ume  will  not  permit  of  exhaustive  details,  but  the 
application  of  the  above  method  of  awarding 
contracts  will  lessen  substantially  the  cost  of  the 
building.  Theatre  building  under  prevailing  meth- 
ods costs  entirely  too  much  money,  and  for  no 


186  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

apparent  good  reason.  It  is  difficult  to  conceive 
how  a  structure  composed  mainly  of  an  empty 
shell  should  cost  as  much  per  cubic  foot  as  a 
commercial  building  completely  fitted  with  floors 
and  partitions. 


Unique   Application    of   Cantilever   Principle 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

EXAMPLES  OF  THEATRE  ARCHI- 
TECTURE. 

EXISTING  AND  SUGGESTED  MODELS. 

THIS  chapter  will  be  devoted  to  the  descrip- 
tions of  the  interiors  of  three  existing  thea- 
tres and  of  three  original  models  of  various 
types,  any  and  all  of  which  may  be  adapted  for 
the  presentation  of  motion  pictures.  In  order  to 
differentiate  the  original  models  from  the  exist- 
ing ones  each  of  the  originals  will  be  described 
as  the  first  visit  of  an  imaginary  patron. 

NEW  YORK  HIPPODROME. 
The  first  to  be  described  will  be  the  interior  inception 

of  Building. 

of  the  New  York  Hippodrome,  an  existing  thea- 
tre selected  because  of  its  large  size  and  adapta- 
bility to  the  exhibition  of  motion  pictures  amid 
spectacular  surroundings.  The  idea  of  the  Hippo- 
drome had  its  origin  in  Blackpool,  England,  a 
workmen's  watering  place  near  Liverpool.  The 
popular  success  of  a  replica  of  this  Blackpool  in- 
stitution that  was  built  in  London  some  years 
later  prompted  Fred  Thompson  of  Coney  Island 
fame  to  construct  a  similar  structure  in  New 
York  on  a  much  larger  scale.  He  secured  the 
aid  of  private  capital  and  erected  the  colossal  edi- 
fice herein  described.  It  is  by  far  the  largest 
building  of  its  kind  in  the  world,  and  was  de- 
signed by  J.  H.  Morgan,  of  New  York.    Its  con- 

187 


r ;;.;.. ■:■■■■  .v.."'- >■■■■■'...:    .         ""     "\;>:.  .":  -,v,v::  '  •  " 


Exterior  View   New   York    Hippodrome 


188 


o  o 
►^  u 
*      2 


189 


190 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Rapid 
Construction. 


Color 
Scheme. 


struction  was  begun  July  i,  1904,  and  five  months, 
later  it  was  ready  for  occupancy.  Its  front  covers 
the  full  distance  between  two  ordinary  city  blocks, 
200  feet,  and  it  extends  back  on  the  side  streets 
240  feet.  .  Its  cost  was  $1,750,000. 

While  the  entire  building  is  devoted  to  a  single 
object,  there  are,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  two  struc- 
turally independent  portions;  the  auditorium  and 
the  stage,  which  are  connected  through  the  pros- 
cenium arch.  The  auditorium  is  160  feet  square, 
and  five  transverse  trusses  that  span  the  structure 
carry  the  roof.  These  trusses  are  supported  by 
four  main  columns  at  the  corners  of  a  108  foot 
rectangle,  the  two  end  girders  being  connected 
directly  to  the  columns  and  intermediate  trusses 
by  two  large  longitudinal  members. 

The  general  color  scheme  is  a  Roman  red  back- 
ground with  all  structural  features  finished  in 
ivory,  gold  and  silver.  The  entire  orchestra,  bal- 
conies and  galleries  are  carpeted  with  a  fine 
grade  of  Royal  Wilton  covering,  woven  to  order 
to  match  the  dark  crimson  decorations,  and  the 
wall  hangings,  draperies,  and  upholstery  are  exe- 
cuted in  Roman  red  velvet,  enriched  with  heavy 
gold  and  silver  embroidery  and  tassels.  Some  of 
these  tassels  weigh  as  much  as  170  pounds  each. 

The  proscenium  opening  is  90  feet  wide  and 
45  feet  high.  In  front  of  the  main  proscenium 
is  a  false  arch  of  terra  cotta  blocks  extending 
to  the  ceiling,  and  between  these  two  prosceniums 


EXAMPLES  OF  THEATRE  ARCHITECTURE  191 

there  is  a  secondary  gridiron  used  for  suspending 
trapezes  and  like  paraphernalia. 

The  stage  itself  is  200  feet  wide  and  extends 
back  no  feet  to  the  rear  wall.  It  stretches  up- 
ward to  the  roof  over  90  feet,  its  upper  section  be- 
ing employed  as  a  fly  loft.  The  semi-circular  apron 
of  the  stage  protrudes  60  feet  into  the  auditorium, 
and  is  large  enough  to  contain  two  regulation 
circus  rings,  40  feet  in  diameter,  in  which  two 
distinct  performances  may  be  given  simultane- 
ously. Underneath  this  apron  and  stage  is  an 
immense  water  tank,  14  feet  in  depth,  holding 
400,000  gallons,  in  which  aquatic  spectacles  and 
all  manner  of  water  sports  may  be  shown. 

The  construction  of  the  stage  is  original  and 
unique,  and  its  possibilities  are  exhaustless.  It 
may  be  lowered,  raised  and  divided  throughout  at 
different  periods  of  the  performance,  and  great 
volumes  of  water  made  to  flow  under  it,  either 
hidden  or  open,  as  the  master  hand  directs.  The 
whole  stage  platform  is  virtually  a  system  of 
huge  elevators  supported  on  mammoth  plungers. 
Two  sections  of  dressing  rooms,  five  stories  high, 
flank  either  side  of  the  immense  stage,  behind 
fireproof  walls. 

The  imposing  entrance,  which  is  graced  on  both  imposing 
sides  by  elaborate  Corinthian  porticos,  opens  into 
a  reception  lobby,  liberal  in  its  proportions,  wains- 
coted in  marble,  with  heavily  beamed  ceilings 
above.  The  side  walls  of  the  lobby,  like  those  of 
the   interior,    are   imitation   Caen   stone   relieved 


192  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

by  rich  illuminations  of  ornamental  gold  and  sil- 
ver.    Immense  elephants'  heads  serve  as  capitals 
for  the  marble  columns  and  pilasters. 
nisXutional  ^he    New  York  Hippodrome  and  its  produc- 

tions have  come  to  be  .regarded  by  the  American 
public  as  a  national  institution.  For  a  brief 
period  this  colossally  proportioned  house  was  de- 
voted to  the  display  of  motion  pictures  on  a  grand 
scale,  brightened  during  intermissions  by  elabo- 
rate spectacles  and  rich  stage  settings. 


ORIGINAL  MODEL  SUGGESTED  FOR  A 
GRAND  CENTRAL  THEATRE 

The  second  theatre  to  be  described  is  an  origi- 
nal model  of  a  large  theatre,  similar  in  size  to 
the  Hippodrome  just  described,  and  intended  for 
the  spectacular  display  of  motion  pictures.  The 
combination  diagram  of  the  floor  plans  of  this 
building  illustrated  at  the  conclusion  of  this  chap- 
ter shows  the  main  floor  division  on  the  right 
side  of  the  diagram  and  the  balcony  section  on 
the  left  side. 

A  patron  entering  this  spacious  lobby  is  im-  J^e  Lobby 
pressed  with  the  plain  paneled  marble  walls  and 
the  simple  Greek  Doric  style  of  decoration.  He 
purchases  his  ticket  at  one  of  the  ticket  windows 
and  proceeds  past  the  liveried  door  attendant 
into  a  spacious  foyer,  comfortably  furnished  with 
long  upholstered  settees  that  rest  against  the  side 
walls.  Hearing  the  blast  of  the  orchestral  band 
he  approaches  one  of  the  five  glass  paneled  doors 
between  the  groups  of  inclosed  rear  boxes  that 
separate  the  foyer  from  the  audience  hall. 

These  aisle  doors  lead  into  five  broad  passages  Auditorium, 
that  divide  the  great  seating  space  of  the  main 
floor  into  six  longitudinal  divisions.  At  the  ex- 
treme ends  of  these  groups  of  boxes  are  also  two 
glass  paneled  doors  connecting  with  a  broad 
transverse  passage.  This  passage  divides  the 
seating  space  across  the  middle,  leaving  ten 
rows  of  low-backed  chairs   on  each  side  of  it. 

193 


194 


^f^i   r\^ 


t- Hs 


*§S* 


Combination   Floor   Plans   of   Model   Grand   Central  Theatre 


195 


196  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

These  chairs  are  separated  in  rows  by  ample  pas- 
sage space,  measuring  three  feet  from  back  to 
back.  Turning  about  the  patron  views  the  open 
fronts  of  the  inclosed  boxes  extending  in  semi- 
circular form  with  flattened  sides  and  rear,  from 
one  side  exit  to  the  opposite  side  exit.  In  the 
foyer,  just  outside  these  side  exits,  the  toilets  are 
arranged  underneath,  the  space  usually  occupied 
for  stage  boxes.  On  one  side  is  an  accommoda- 
tion room  for  ladies  and  on  the  other  side  a  smok- 
ing room  and  a  toilet  for  men. 
BoxeSs!age  The  patron  proceeds  down  the  aisle  and  ob- 

serves on  his  right  instead  of  a  stage  box  a  large 
terraced  semi-circular  music  stand  for  the  or- 
chestra, with  a  similar  provision  for  a  large 
chorus  on  the  left  side.  The  domed  ceiling  and 
side  walls  of  both  are  smoothly  curved  and  treated 
in  the  familiar  manner  of  sounding-boards  for 
park  music  stands.  Between  the  arch  columns 
of  the  outer  broad  proscenium  is  an  opening  some 
seventy-five  feet  in  width.  Before  the  curtain  that 
divides  the  stage  from  the  audience  there  is  an 
open  waterway  in  the  space  where  one  usually 
finds  the  orchestra.  A  wide  arched  bridge  spans 
this  waterway  midway  between  the  proscenium 
supporting  columns,  the  front  portion  being  ex- 
posed to  view.  Later,  when  the  curtain  rises  the 
entire  bridge  extending  back  to  the  solid  stage  will 
be  exposed,  and  underneath  this  bridge  one  will 
see  splendid  gondolas  float,  bearing  gorgeously 
costumed  gondoliers  singing  Italian  songs. 


A  GRAND  CENTRAL  THEATRE  197 

Before  taking  his  seat,  the  visiting  spectator  The  Balcony, 
takes  a  sweeping  look  at  the  balcony  above 
and  behind  him.  He  beholds  a  deep  balcony 
fringed  at  the  front  with  open  loggias,  each  seat- 
ing ten  persons.  Back  of  these  loggias  are 
twelve  rows  of  the  same  sort  of  low -backed 
chairs  as  those  on  the  main  floor,  divided  by  four 
aisles  that  lead  up  from  the  passageway  behind 
the  loggias  to  a  spacious  standing  space  behind 
the  last  row  of  seats.  He  notices  that  each  of 
these  aisles  split  into  two  passages  near  the  bot- 
torn  to  permit  the  entrance  of  a  passageway  that 
tunnels  its  way  beneath  the  main  balcony  seats 
to  the  front  row  of  loggias.  He  resolves  to  ex- 
plore further  that  section  during  the  intermission. 

The  patron,  comfortably  seated  in  his  low-  TheSfege 
backed  arm-chair,  now  watches  the  great  asbestos 
curtain  as  it  slowly  rises,  and  reveals  behind  it 
another  proscenium  opening,  capable  of  expan- 
sion and  contraction  to  any  desired  size.  The 
curtain  of  this  inner  opening  splits  in  the  middle 
and  gracefully  folds  back  on  both  sides  as  it  rises, 
revealing  a  stepped  platform  set  a  few  feet  back 
on  the  stage  and  surmounted  by  a  great  Roman 
arch.  Upon  the  rigid  white  expanse  within  this 
arch  the  pictures  are  shown  to  the  accompanying 
strains  of  appropriate  music. 

Following  the  first  picture  comes  the  closing   a  Pictorial 
of  the  curtains  of  the  inner  arch  and  the  singing   Scene, 
of  the  choir  accompanied  by  the  music  of  the 
band.     When  the  curtains  are  again  separated 


198 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


No  One 

Enters 
During  the 
Showing  of 
a  Picture. 


the  scene  on  the  stage  has  been  completely  changed 
by  the  simple  turning  of  a  large  turntable  plat- 
form fitted  in  the  stage  floor.  This  platform  has 
arranged  upon  it  at  right  angles  to  the  screen  in 
the  Roman  arch,  another  screen  framed  in  a  large 
deep  golden  molding,  similar  to  that  used  in  art 
galleries  for  framing  pictures.  On  either  side 
of  it  hang  corresponding  frames,  within  which 
are  exposed  brilliantly  lighted  groups  of  live  fig- 
ures representing  stationary  art  scenes.  After  a 
brief  interval  the  lights  of  the  living  pictures  are 
turned  off,  and  the  moving  picture  in  the  cen- 
tral frame  is  shown  alone. 

The  spectator  notices  small  groups  of  people 
coming  in  the  theatre  during  the  interval,  but 
not  a  single  person  enters  during  the  showing 
of  the  picture.  He  is  informed  afterward  that 
it  is  a  rule  of  the  house  to  detain  latecomers  in 
the  spacious  foyer  until  the  pause  between  pic- 
tures. 

During  the  long  intermission  that  divides  the 
program  the  visitor  leaves  his  seat  and,  going  to 
the  rear  foyer,  climbs  one  of  the  broken  flights  of 
stairs  that  lead  to  the  mezzanine  floor.  Here  he 
observes  that  this  floor  resembles  a  sort  of  bal- 
cony to  the  rear  foyer,  and  is  equipped  with  cloak 
rooms  and  offices  between  the  tunnel  passages 
that  pierce  the  balcony.  He  traverses  one  of  these 
and  discovers  that  they  are  the  same  tunnels  that 
he  saw  from  below.  Upon  further  investigation 
he  discovers  toilets  at  the  ends  of  the  balcony  and 


A  GRAND  CENTRAL  THEATRE  199 

behind  the  spaces  reserved  for  the  orchestra  and 
chorus.  He  also  learns  that  from  an  entrance  out- 
side, the  auditorium  a  large  projection  room  situ- 
ated on  the  floor  above  the  rear  balcony  can  be 
reached.  This  impresses  him  as  an  excellent  idea 
in  case  of  a  sudden  fire  in  that  dangerous  zone. 
If  the  room  be  fireproof  and  there  be  no  open- 
ings into  the  auditorium  a  fire  would  burn  itself 
out  before  being  detected  by  the  audience. 

He  is  also  informed  that  the  large  dome  that  r^"^ 
adorns  the  center  of  the  auditorium  ceiling  is  a 
sliding  roof,  one  hemisphere  of  which  slides  to 
one  side  while  the  other  half  slides  to  the  other 
side  by  the  pressure  of  a  push-button,  exposing  a 
clear  view  of  the  sky  in  pleasant  weather.  This, 
too,  is  a  most  desirable  innovation  that  has  never 
come  to  his  notice  before. 

Wandering  through  the  foyer  corridor  he  is 
struck  by  the  ample  means  furnished  for  the  com- 
fort of  patrons  under  normal  conditions,  and  the 
completeness  of  the  safety  provision  in  case  of 
danger.  Distributed  along  the  side  walls  of  the 
foyer,  where  there  are  no  racks  for  hanging 
coats,  are  settees  where  the  tired  may  sit,  leaving 
plenty  of  promenade  space  for  those  who  prefer 
to  walk.  Here  at  last  is  a  theatre  with  sufficient 
lounging  space  where  patrons  may  wait  in  com- 
fort for  seats  to  be  vacated  in  the  auditorium. 
In  time  of  fire  this  same  foyer  will  provide  room 
for  the  congregation  of  frightened  masses,  and 
its  isolation  will  make  it  safe  from  any  gas  or 


200  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

smoke  created  in  the  theatre  proper.  Along  the 
side  walls  are  many  exit  doors  that  lead  direct 
to  the  open,  and  in  the  interior  audience  hall  it  is 
possible  to  ventilate  quickly  the  entire  room  by 
opening  the  immense  dome  that  crowns  the  cen- 
ter of  the  hall. 
Real  indirect         The  patron  does  not  fail  to  notice  that  the  en- 

Lightmg.  • 

tire  auditorium,  foyer  and  lobby  are  illuminated 
by  continuous  rows  of  incandescent  lamps  hidden 
behind  cornices  that  reflect  their  rays  from 
rounded  coves  surmounting  the  upper  side  walls, 
and  look  for  all  the  world  like  a  brilliantly  painted 
band  instead  of  a  source  of  light.  It  is  with  a 
feeling  of  great  satisfaction  that  he  leaves  the 
theatre. 


THE  SCALA  THEATRE/  LONDON. 

The  third  will  be  a  brief  description  of  the  in- 
terior of  an  existing  but  rarely  used  theatre,  "The 
Scala"  of  London. 

This  is  recognized  as  the  most  beautiful  thea- 
tre in  England,  and  at  the  time  of  its  erection 
was  probably  the  finest  theatre  of  its  kind  in  the 
world.  It  is  the  result  of  the  munificence  of  a 
wealthy  man,  and  although  situated  on  a  little 
known  street  in  a  comporatively  poor  quarter  of 
London  it  is  built  and  decorated  in  perfect  taste. 
In  fact,  the  magnificence  of  the  building  is  mani- 
fest at  its  very  threshold.  The  interior  is  of  ex- 
quisitely designed  marble ;  the  seats  are  luxurious, 
and  the  decorations  classic  and  imposing.  All 
about  the  interior  of  the  auditorium  are  indica- 
tions of  a  distinct  advance  in  the  evolution  of  a 
modern  play-house.  Yet  this  wonderful  edifice, 
boasting  of  its  superior  accommodations  and  no- 
ble decorations,  stands  idle  today  because  of  its 
unwisely  chosen  location. 

The  side  walls  are  of  hewn  blocks  of  unpol-  Audience  Hail, 
ished  white  marble,  arranged  in  severely  square 
panels,  bordered  with  cunningly  devised  polished 
marble  pilasters  of  a  corresponding  color  and 
topped  with  burnished  bronze  capitals.  As  in 
most  London  theatres,  the  stalls  or  best  seats 
are  located  below  the  street  level  in  the  front  part 
of  the  main  floor,  yet  they  are  readily  accessible 
by  open  stairways  with  broken  flights  of  steps 

201 


View  of  Scala  Theatre,    London,    England 


202 


Another  View  Scala  Theatre 


203 


204  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

that  descend  on  either  side  of  the  house  from 
the  balcony  level.  The  resting  platform  in  the 
middle  of  the  stairs  is  surmounted  by  an  open 
Roman  Doric  arch,  supported  on  ornamental 
columns  of  like  design.  In  the  upper  niches  of 
the  space  underneath  these  arches  are  installed 
comfortable  state  boxes. 
Balconies.  There  is  a  dress  circle  (balcony)  and  a  family 

circle  (second  balcony)  both  comfortably  fur- 
nished with  roomy  low-backed  arm-chairs.  The 
orchestra  and  pit,  too,  have  chairs  of  this  kind 
that  aid  in  giving  passage  space  between  the  rows. 
The  proscenium  opening  is  a  model  of  sim- 
plicity, with  its  flatly  curved  top  and  severely 
draped  front  curtain.  There  is  no  stage  projec- 
tion, and  the  orchestra  well  is  buried  out  of  sight 
beneath  the  stage  front.  Stately  figures  and  ef- 
fective ornaments,  with  classic  column  bases  and 
capitals  of  bronze,  help  to  decorate  the  marble 
side  walls,  the  dead  white  of  which  is  relieved  by 
the  warmth  of  dark  rich  hangings  and  draperies. 


ORIGINAL  MODEL  FOR  A  NEIGHBOR- 
HOOD THEATRE. 

The  next  interior  to  be  described  is  an  original 
model  of  a  Neighborhood  theatre  designed  for  a 
superior  class  of  patrons.  To  assist  the  imagina- 
tion in  the  contemplation  of  this  superior  form 
of  theatre  we  shall  employ  the  same  method  of 
pardonable  deception  as  that  employed  in  reciting  ' 
the  features  of  the  large  central  theatre,  except 
that,  because  of  the  social  character  of  the  present 
edifice,  the  visiting  patron  shall  be  accompanied 
by  his  wife. 

When    Mr.    Pleasanton   comes   home   after   a   Mr.  and  Mrs. 

Pleasanton 

hard  day  in  his  office  he  may  feel  in  the  mood  to    Xisit i1?*5 

J  J  New  Theatre. 

enjoy  a  good  evening's  entertainment,  but  the  ne- 
cessity of  traveling  a  distance  to  the  theatre  is 
very  likely  to  discourage  him  from  going.  When 
Mrs.  Pleasanton,  however,  tells  him  of  the  new 
theatre  so  close  at  hand — only  five  minutes'  walk 
away — he  is  glad  to  accept  her  suggestion  that 
they  visit  it. 

Approaching  the  theatre  they  notice  its  two 
long  narrow  windows,  the  cathedral  glass  of 
which  is  brilliantly  illuminated  by  indirect  light- 
ing. Attracted  first  by  this  bright  beacon,  they 
both  comment  on  the  general  beauty  and  chastity 
of  the  exterior  design  of  the  theatre  and  Mr, 
Pleasanton,  ever  practical,  lauds  the  owners  for 
their  selection  of  so  convenient  a  site. 

205 


Main  Floor  Plan  of  Model  Neighborhood  Theatre 


206 


Balcony   Floor   Plan   of  Model   Neighborhood  Theatre 


207 


208 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


The  Foyer 
And  Its 

Conveniences. 


The 

Auditorium 

Seating. 


"One  never  needs  to  prepare  especially  for  a 
theatre  so  near  home,"  he  says. 

Impressed  by  the  simple  decoration  of  the  in- 
viting and  spacious  lobby,  the  couple,  after  pro- 
curing their  seats  at  one  of  the  ticket  windows 
that  pierce  the  marble  side  walls,  enter  the  foyer 
to  be  confronted  by  fresh  surprises.  Liveried 
attendants,  in  apparent  profusion,  politely  relieve 
them  of  their  wraps,  which  are  deposited  in  con- 
venient receptacles  underneath  the  stairs  to  the 
balcony.  Madame's  new  picture  hat  is  carefully 
placed  in  a  separate  cabinet,  and  she  experiences 
a  feeling  of  relief  as  she  realizes  that  there  is  no 
danger  of  its  being  crushed  by  persons  crowding 
past  her  in  the  cramped  space  between  seats.  Mr. 
Pleasanton  also  is  delighted  to  learn  that  there 
is  no  extra  charge  for  this  much-needed  atten- 
tion. 

Fortunately  they  arrive  before  the  perform- 
ance has  begun  and  are  shown  directly  to  their 
seats.  To  their  utter  astonishment  the  people  al- 
ready seated  remain  undisturbed  while  they  pass 
through  to  their  seats.  This  accomplishment  so 
pleasurably  affects  Mrs.  Pleasanton  that  she  re- 
marks in  an  undertone  to  her  husband : 

"What  a  comfort  it  is  to  feel  that  we  have  not 
disturbed  anyone  in  reaching  our  seats,"  and  to 
this  her  husband  dryly  retorts :  "And  what  a  de- 
lightful contemplation  to  realize  that  no  one  will 
disturb  us  in  crushing  past  to  get  in  or  go.  out." 

Mr.  Pleasanton  further  remarks  that  this  pas- 


NEIGHBORHOOD  THEATRE  209 

sage  without  disturbance  is  made  possible  by  a 
trifle  wider  spacing  between  the  rows  of  seats 
and  the  installation  of  low-back  chairs,  adding 
that  such  an  adoption  must  bring  enough  in- 
creased patronage  to  more  than  offset  any  small 
loss  in  the  number  of  seats. 

Mrs.  Pleasanton  signifies  her  approval  and  ob-  orch^stnraen 
serves  that  the  side  walls  and  ceiling  are  of  hewn  Wel1- 
stone,  to  which  her  husband  replies  that  in  his 
belief  they  are  only  plaster  imitation  of  Caen 
stone,  but  that  nevertheless  they  afford  a  feeling 
of  security  from  fire  risk.  Mrs.  Pleasanton,  al- 
ways a  lover  of  good  music,  comments  on  the 
sweetness  of  the  strains  of  the  overture,  which 
seemingly  comes  from  a  distance.  Mr.  Pleasan- 
ton explains  that  this  entrancing  effect  is  pro- 
duced by  submerging  the  orchestra  in  a  space  well 
beneath  the  stage  apron  and  front  rows  of  seats, 
supplementing  his  explanation  with  the  remark: 
"Music  apparently  coming  from  a  distance  is 
alluring.  I  hate  these  blatant  brass  bands  that 
blow  their  music  directly  at  you  in  chunks,  and 
in  picture  houses  where  they  place  the  band  in 
full  view  before  your  very  eyes,  as  if  purposely  to 
distract  your  attention  from  the  stage  it  is  most 
distressing." 

Before  Mrs.  Pleasanton  can  voice  her  approval  Patrons  in  a 

ctr  Psychologic 

the  curtain  is  up  and  their  interest  is  shifted  to   Dream- 
the   stage.      Everything  is   metamorphosed   into 
what  seems  to  be  the  temple  of  a  strange  god, 
and  the  effect  upon  this  captivated  couple  is  such 


210 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


A  Mirrored 
View  of  the 
Audience. 


No  Visible 

Lamp 

Fixtures. 


that  they  forget  entirely  their  critical  faculties. 
How  astute  has  been  the  management  that  has 
so  regulated  everything  as  to  render  the  minds 
of  his  patrons  sensitive  to  the  slightest  impres- 
sion. Like  children  listening  to  an  Arabian 
Nights'  tale,  they  are  fascinated  by  everything 
they  see  or  hear,  so  wonderful  has  been  the 
psychic  effect  of  their  surroundings. 

The  act  is  too  quickly  over  and  the  curtain 
falls.  A  large  silvered  ball,  not  unlike  the  huge 
mirror  balls  so  popular  in  European  gardens, 
slowly  protrudes  into  view  from  the  depths  of 
the  orchestra  well.  With  suppressed  "Ahs"  the 
audience  appreciate  at  once  that  this  bright  object 
gives  mirrored  reflection  of  the  entire  auditorium 
and  all  that  it  contains..  Mr.  Pleasanton  also  re- 
alizes that  this  same  ball,  before  being  raised, 
must  have  served  the  musical  conductor  in  fol- 
lowing the  action  upon  the  stage. 

With  the  turning  up  of  the  lights  both  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Pleasanton  discover  that  the  auditorium  is 
illuminated  by  some  unseen  source  of  light.  There 
are  no  fixtures  anywhere  in  view  but  merely  an 
increased  intensity  of  a  bright  light  band  that 
encircles  the  room  at  the  cove  juncture  of  the  side 
walls  and  ceiling.  Mr.  Pleasanton,  a  student  of 
technical  magazines,  explains  to  his  wife  that  the 
absence  of  the  usual  "spotty"  effect  is  produced 
by  continuous  tube  lighting. 

The  mirrored  observation  ball  is  lowered  and 
the  curtain  again  rises.    Mr.  and  Mrs.  Pleasanton 


NEIGHBORHOOD  THEATRE  211 

are  at  once  plunged  into  an  atmosphere  of  witch- 
ery. To  them  everything  in  the  play  pertains  to 
magic.  The  elderly  actors  appear  youthful,  the 
callous  sentimental,  the  stupid  witty,  the  plain 
beautiful,  and  the  commonplace  romantic.  It  is 
a  world  of  illusion  in  which  the  events  presented 
are  gauged  by  the  mental  barometer  of  the  audi- 
tor. The  low  cost  of  admission,  the  chastity  of 
decoration,  the  spacious  foyer  with  its  ample  pro- 
vision for  coat  hanging,  the  comfortable  seating, 
the  concealed  music,  and  the  subtle  lighting  have 
all  done  their  work  well.,.  There  is  another  inter- 
mission, the  curtain  lowers  and  raises  again,  the 
performance  is  soon  over,  and  the  highly  pleased 
couple  rise  from  their  seats  to  take  their  depar- 
ture. 

Facing  about,  they  view  the  full  interior  of  i^interior 
this  magnificent  playhouse.  Transversely  across 
the  lower  floor  are  aisled  rows  of  low  comfortable 
arm  chairs  from  which  gayly  dressed  people  are 
arising.  The  audience  hall  is  separated  from  a 
spacious  foyer  by  groups  of  inclosed  boxes  cur- 
tained in  royal  purple.  Two  similarly  draped  cir- 
cular guests'  boxes  protrude  from  the  side  walls 
above  the  side  foyer  doorways,  and  back  of  them 
sweeps  a  deep  broad  balcony  with  open  loggias 
in  front  and  inclosed  boxes  at  the  rear.  The  walls 
are  plain  panels  of  imitation  Caen  stone,  sur- 
mounted by  a  simple  ceiling  of  the  same  material, 
with  a  large  canopied'  dome  in  the  center  for 
ventilation.     The  junction  lines  of  the  walls  and 


212  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

ceiling  are  adorned  by  a  brilliantly  illuminated 
cove  that  furnishes  reflected  light  to  the  whole 
interior.  The  floors  are  carpeted  in  a  solid  gray 
and  the  dead  whiteness  of  the  walls  and  ceiling- 
is  relieved  by.the  warm  tones  of  purple  hangings. 
The  Foyer  Passing  through  the  foyer  on  their  way  out  the 

Furnishings.  °.  °  J  J  t 

couple  wait  but  a  moment  to  recover  their  outer 
garments.  Plenty  of  courteous  attendants  are 
there  to  serve  them.  This  short  pause  gives  them 
an  opportunity  to  view  with  admiration  the  de- 
lightful comforts  of  this  broad  promenade,  with 
its  marble  stairways  on  both  sides  rising  to  the 
balconied  mezzanine  floor  above,  underneath 
which  are  the  coat-hanging  and  hat-checking  con- 
veniences. Against  the  side  walls,  between  the 
numerous  emergency  exits,  are  long  comfortable 
divans  for  use  during  intervals  or  for  patrons 
waiting  for  admission  until  the  termination  of 
an  act. 

The  couple  depart  deciding  to  attend  this  won- 
derful house  again  at  every  weekly  change  of 
program. 


ORIGINAL  MODEL  WITH  A  REVERSED 
AUDITORIUM. 

The  next  form  of  theatre  to  be  presented  is 
of  an  original  interior  design.  It  is  of  the  same 
size  and  general  character  as  the  one  just  de- 
scribed, except  that  its  audience-hall  is  half  a  • 
story  higher  and  reversed,  with  entrances  at  the 
front  instead  of  at  the  rear.  The  author  em- 
ployed, for  the  first  time,  the  same  idea  in  con- 
structing the  Nollendorf  "Theatre  in  Berlin,  Ger- 
many, said  to  be,  when  completed,  the  finest  thea- 
tre in  the  world  devoted  to  motion  pictures.  He 
was  there  confronted  by  the  serious  problem  of 
restricted  space.  The  ground  had  been  secured 
and  a  theatre  of  sufficient  capacity  had  to  be 
erected  upon  it.  To  accomplish  this  with  prac- 
tically a  ground  floor  theatre  seemed  impossible, 
but  necessity  became  the  mother  of  invention. 
A  theatre  was  devised  with  a  stage  and  lobby  in 
the  same  area,  and  an  entrance  that  by  two  short 
broken  flights  of  stairs  delivered  patrons  into  the 
auditorium  half  a  story  above  the  sidewalk  under 
the  impression  that  they  were  in  a  ground  floor 
theatre. 

In  order  to  picture  more  vividly  the  appearance   p^nt™"' 
of  this  theatre,  we  shall  accompany  our  friends   Theatten°ther 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Pleasanton  on  their  initial  visit  to 
this  new  house.  They  approach  the  broad  portals 
of  the  proportionately   large  lobby,   where  they 
purchase  their  tickets. 

213 


214 


Combination   Floor  Plan  Small  Model  Photoplayhouse 


"^V*\AyM\V 


Basement   Plan   Small   Model   Photoplayhouse 

215 


216 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


Caen  Stone 
Walls  and 
Ceilings. 


The  Lower 
Floor  Seating. 


Before  proceeding  to  the  audience-hall  they 
descend  several  steps  into  a  spacious  half-base- 
ment beneath  the  auditorium  to  deposit  their 
wraps  and  wait  for  the  finish  of  the  picture  then 
being  shown  in  the  main  hall  above.  They  take 
their  seats  in  this  waiting  room  at  a  small  table 
where  refreshments  are  served,  and  there  view 
the  pictured  current  events  being  shown  on  a 
large  screen  at  the  farther  end  of  the  small  hall. 
A  ringing  bell  announces  that  the  picture  in  the 
hall  above  has  been  finished,  and  they  with  others 
who  also  have  been  waiting  ascend  the  few  stairs 
that  lead  to  the  main  auditorium. 

This  grand  room  has  the  same  side  walls  and 
ceiling  of  Caen  stone  that  distinguish  the  previous 
original  models,  the  same  illuminated  cove  extend- 
ing like  a  band  of  light  beneath  the  ceiling,  and 
with  the  same  illuminated  ventilating  dome  for  a 
center. 

Transversely  across  the  main  floor  are  seven- 
teen double-aisled  rows  of  low-backed,  comfort- 
able arm-chairs,  with  a  wide  passage  space  be- 
tween that  divides  them  nearly  in  half.  As  in 
the  theatres  devoted  to  motion  pictures  previously 
visited,  the  seats  are  filled  with  gayly  dressed 
people  bathed  in  a  radiance  mysteriously  reflected 
downward  from  the  continuous  light  tubes  that 
lay  hidden  from  view  behind  the  ornamental  cor- 
nice that  crowns  the  inclosing  walls  of  the  audi- 
torium. They  are  intently  listening  to  the  distant 
strains  of  an  orchestra  concealed  in  a.  hanging 


REVERSED  AUDITORIUM  217 

balcony  above  the  stage  opening.  Behind  these 
rows  of  chairs  are  three  groups  of  inclosed  boxes 
draped  in  rich  hangings,  and  against  the  blackness 
beyond  show  dimly  the  outlines  of  the  glass  pan- 
eled doors  that  lead  to  the  foyer. 

Out  of  consideration  for  the  attentive  gather- 
ing and  to  appreciate  more  fully  the  apparent 
simplicity  of  an  interior  decoration  endlessly  va- 
ried in  material  and  style,  the  couple  silently  as- 
cend one  of  the  heavily  railed  broad  marble  stair- 
cases that  lead  on  both  sides  of  the  hall  to  the 
balcony  where  are  located  the  best  seats  in  a  pic- 
ture house. 

Upon  reaching  the  balcony,  they  are  impressed  The  Balcony, 
by  the  apparent  comfort  of  the  row  of  open  log- 
gias that  decorate  its  front.  There  is  a  draped, 
canopied,  circular  guest  box  at  each  end  of  the 
balcony  jutting  from  the  wall  above  the  landing 
platform  on  the  stairs,  under  which  they  have 
passed  in  making  their  ascension.  Behind  the 
loggias  are  arranged  the  same  aisled  transverse 
rows  of  chairs,  six  in  number,  and  the  identical 
groups  of  inclosed  boxes  that  give  the  main  floor 
its  appearance  of  coziness.  Here,  too,  like  dim 
shadows  show  the  glass  paneled  doors  that  lead 
to  the  balcony  foyer  beyond. 

Taking  their  seats  in  one  of  the  open  loggias.    Emergency 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Pleasanton  view  with  keen  interest 
the  performance,  which  consists  of  several  reels 
of  an   interesting  drama.     During  an  intermis- 
sion of  the  program  the  ventilator  dome  is  opened, 


218 


MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 


This  Pleased 
Couple  Add 
This  Theatre 
to  Their 
Visiting  List. 


affording  a  clear  view  of  the  starry  blue  sky 
above.  The  couple  now  ascend  to  the  rear  foyer 
of  the  balcony  and  take  the  broad  inclosed  emer- 
gency stairs  to  the  basement.  In  the  rear  of  the 
basement,  where  they  have  checked  their  gar- 
ments, they  discover  that  other  stairs  lead  to  this 
same  basement.  A  flight  corresponding  to  the 
one  they  have  descended  leads  to  the  other  side 
of  the  rear  of  the  basement,  with  an  opening 
into  an  emergency  alley  on  that  side  of  the  thea- 
tre. Two  other  stairways  with  entrances  under- 
neath the  stairs  in  the  auditorium,  that  ascend  to 
the  balcony,  also  lead  to  the  fore  part  of  the  base- 
ment. In  the  rear  of  this  same  basement,  ad- 
jacent to  the  emergency  stairs,  are  stationed  the 
two  toilets,  on  one  side  the  men's  and  on  the 
other  side  the  ladies'. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Pleasanton  gladly  vote  this  a 
unique  and  delightful  theatre,  as  it  provides,  in 
addition  to  comfortable  seating,  spacious  cloak 
rooms  and  a  waiting  room  in  the  basement  for 
patrons,  where  they  -may  be  pleasantly  entertained 
while  waiting  for  the  termination  of  a  picture 
in  the  main  auditorium.  The  two  short  broken 
stairways  of  a  dozen  steps  all  told  make  it  prac- 
tically a  ground  floor  theatre,  and  the  convenient 
way  of  going  directly  to  the  lowest  point  in  the 
balcony  is  far  superior  to  the  usual  procedure  of 
reaching  the  balcony  at  its  highest  point  in  the 
rear  and  then  walking  down  again  to  one's  seat. 


THE  LITTLE  THEATRE,  NEW  YORK. 

The  next  illustrative  description  will  be  that 
of  the  Little  Theatre,  New  York,  erected  by 
Winthrop  Ames  of  Boston,  a  wealthy  disciple  of 
the  advanced  theatre  movement.  This  house, 
modeled  on  the  plan  of  the  small  intimate  thea- 
tres of  Germany,  was  built  for  the  express  pur- 
pose of  presenting  with  artistic  precision  all  the 
minute  gradations  of  facial  expression  and  the 
subtle  inflections  of  the  voice.  It  has  but  one 
floor  and  seats  but  300  persons. 

Crowded  closely  between  two  adjoining  build-  Exterior. 
ings,  its  Georgian  design  is  in  a  manner  accentu- 
ated. The  materials  used  in  the  fagade  are  red 
brick  and  French  limestone.  The  exterior  wood- 
work is  painted  pure  white  with  blind  green 
shutters,  and  the  iron  work  is  a  dull  black. 

The  vestibule  reflects  the  best  Georgian  period 
and  displays  the  artistic  conception  of  the  famous 
Adams  brothers. 

The  auditorium  is  illuminated  by  reflected  Auditorium, 
lights  and  is  constructed  on  lines  totally  different 
from  anything  previously  attempted  in  America. 
It  is  elliptical  in  shape  and  devoid  of  either  bal- 
cony or  stage  boxes.  '  The  polished  birch  side- 
walls,  stained  a  deep  walnut  brown,  present  a  suc- 
cession of  flat  panels.  In  these  panels  have  been 
inserted  clever  reproductions  of  the  famous 
Bouche  tapestries.  The  ceiling  is  in  Adams'  style, 
decorated  in  plain  hues  which,  with  reflected  light, 

219 


Exterior  Little  Theatre,  New  York  City 
By  Courtesy  Mr.   Winthrop  Ames 


220 


THE  LITTLE  THEATRE,  NEW   YORK  221 

bring  out  the  brilliant  colors  of  the  costumes  worn 
by  the  women  in  the  audience.  The  principal 
illumination  is  by  the  indirect  rays  from  two 
elaborate  crystal  ceiling  candelabra.  The  cur-  . 
tains  are  of  blue  and  silver  brocade  with  tapestry- 
borders,  and  the  drop  curtain  is  of  Gobelin  blue. 
The  carpet  is  of  mouse  gray  and  the  dark  walnut 
seats  are  upholstered  in  brown  leather. 

The  stage  equipment  is  probably  the  most  mod-  The  Stage* 
ern  in  this  country.     It  includes  a  revolving  plat- 
form of  the  German  turntable  type,  thirty  feet 
in  diameter,  which  permits  of  the  setting  of  sev- 
eral scenes  at  once. 

The  theatres  which  have  just  been  described — 
both  those  in  existence  and  those  whose  designs 
are  suggested  by  the  author — are  presented  as 
models  embodying  the  principles  outlined  in  this 
book.  They  should,  and  undoubtedly  will,  have  a 
distinct  and  beneficial  influence  upon  future 
American  theatre  construction. 


222 


5    W 


223 


APPENDIX. 

AN  appendix  reciting  a  few  of  the  most  necessary  regu- 
lations may  prove  of  service  to  the  reader.     These  will 
include  valuable  extracts  from  the  electric  code  of  the 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

In  addition  the  theatre  ordinance  purposed  by  the  same 
authoritive  body  will  be  published,  together  with  similar  or- 
dinances recently  enacted  by  the  Borough  of  Manhattan 
(New  York  City),  and  the  cities  of  Boston,  Philadelphia. 
Chicago  and  San  Francisco  are  governed  by  state  laws,  with 
some  added  local  restrictions.  The  states  of  Mississippi, 
Kansas  and  Ohio  also  have  state  laws  relative  to  theatres. 

The  ordinance  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers is  not  imperative  except  for  the  adjustment  of  insur- 
ance rates.  Still  it  was  drafted  as  a  suggested  model  for 
municipalities,  and  is  hereby  given  as  such. 

An  Ordinance  Regulating  the  Construction  and  Equipment  of  Theatres. 
Buildings  Covered. 

Every  theatre  or  opera  house  or  other  building  or  parts  of  building 
intended  to  be  used  for  theatrical  or  operatic  purposes  or  motion  picture 
shows,  hereafter  erected  for  the  accommodation  of  more  than  three 
hundred  persons  on'  all  tiers  shall  be  built  to  comply  with  the  require- 
ments of  this  ordinance.  No  building  hereafter  erected  not  in  accord- 
ance with  these  requirements  may  be  used  as  a  theatre,  opera  house, 
or  by  a  motion  picture  show. 

Capacity. 

The  Building  Inspector  shall  determine  the  number  of  persons 
which  every  such  building  may  accommodate.  This  determination  shall 
i  be  based  on  the  actual  number  of  seats  and  an  allowance  of  3  square 
feet  per  person  for  all  parts  of  the  auditorium  or  galleries  where 
"standing  room"  may  be  provided.  By  standing  room  is  meant  such 
space  in  which  by  law  persons  may  be  permitted  to  stand  during  any 
performance.  Such  measurements  are  to  be  exclusive  of  required 
aisles,   passageways   and  lobbies.    No  more  than  the  number  so  deter- 

4  225 


226  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

mined  and  certified  by  the  Building  Inspector  shall  be  allowed  in  such 
structure  at  any  one  time. 

Alterations. 

No  building  which  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of  this  ordinance  is 
not  in  actual  use  for  theatrical  or  operatic  purposes  within  the  meaning 
of  this  ordinance  may  be  altered  or  added  to  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
verting the  same  into  a  theatre,  opera  house,  or  for  use  by  a  motion 
picture  show,  unless  when  altered  or  added  to  it  is  made  in  every 
respect  to  conform  to  the  requirements  of  this  ordinance. 
Present  Buildings. 

The  provisions  of  this  ordinance  shall  not  be  construed  to  mean 
or  be  made  to  apply  to  theatres,  opera  houses  or  motion  picture  shows, 
within  the  meaning  of  this  ordinance  now  erected  or  for  which  plans 
have  heretofore  been  approved  by  the  Building  Inspector. 

Approvals  of  Building  Inspectors  and  Fire  Departments. 

No  building  hereinbefore  described  shall  be  opened  to  the  public 
until  the  Building  Inspector  shall  have  approved  the  same  in  writing 
as  conforming  to  the  requirements  of  this  ordinance,  nor  until  the 
Chief  of  the  Fire  Department  shall  have  certified  in  writing  that  all 
appliances  for  the  extinguishing  of  fire  conform  to  this  ordinance  and 
to  the  special  requirements  of  the  Fire  Department,  and  are  in  a  com- 
plete and  satisfactory  working  condition. 

Fireproof  Building  Over  Auditorium. 

Nothing  herein  contained  shall  prevent  the  construction  of  a  thor- 
oughly fireproof  building  above  a  fireproof  theatre,  opera  house  or 
motion  picture  show,  providing  no  part  of  such  fireproof  building  shall 
be  placed  above  that  portion  of  any  such  building  which  is  known  as 
the  stage  section.  The  portion  containing  the  theatre,  opera  house 
or  motion  picture  show,  including  all  passages,  lobbies  and  other  acces- 
sories connecting  therewith,  shall  be  cut  off  vertically  from  such  fire- 
proof building  by  unpierced  fire  walls  of  solid  masonry  not  less  than 
12-inch  thick  and  horizontally  by  unpierced  fireproof  floors  of  strength 
to  safely  sustain  a  live  load  of  150  pounds  per  square  foot  on  every 
superficial  foot  thereof. 

Roof   Garden. 

A  roof  garden  or  open  air  auditorium  (but  no  other  place  of  public 
amusement)  may  be  constructed  above  a  fireproof  building  used  for 
theatrical  or  operatic  purposes  or  motion  picture  show  built  in  con- 
formity with  the  requirements  of  this  ordinance.  Such  roof  garden  or 
open  air  auditorium  shall  have  not  less  than  60  per  cent  of  its  total 
floor  area  open  to  the  sky  without  a  roof,  except  that  a  cover  of  glass 
and  metal  skylight  construction  may  be  provided,  and  no  part  of  its 
seating  floor,  or  space  upon  which  seats  might  be  placed,  shall  be  at 
greater  height  than  90  feet  above  the  level  of  the  curb  in  the  street  at 
the  main   entrance   to   the   building.     The   total   capacity  of    such   roof 


APPENDIX  '  227 

garden  or  open  air  auditorium  shall  not  exceed  750  persons,  figured  on 
the  same  basis  as  that  provided  elsewhere  in  this  ordinance  for  the  cal- 
culation of  capacity  of  theatres  or  opera  houses.  The  construction  of 
such  roof  garden  or  open  air  auditorium  shall  be  fireproof  and  shall 
conform  in  every  way  to  the  requirements  of  this  ordinance. 

The  size  of  entrances  and  exits,  corridors  and  stairs  shall  be  50  per 
cent  greater  than  the  corresponding  requirements  called  for  in  this 
ordinance  for  theatres  where  the  orchestra  floor  is  at  or  about  the  street 
level.  If  an  audience  is  to  be  assembled  in  the  theatre,  opera  house  or 
motion  picture  show  at  the  same  time  as  in  the  open  air  auditorium  or 
roof  garden  constructed  above  the  same,  then  the  provisions  for  such 
entrance  and  exit  herewith  required  for  the  latter  shall  be  entirely  dis- 
tinct from  and  in  addition  to  the  provisions  for  exits  and  entrances, 
corridors  and  staircases   required   for  the   structure  below. 

If  any  structure  is  built  over  the  ceiling  or  roof  of  any  building 
used  for  a  theatre,  opera  house  or  motion  picture  show,  the  girders, 
trusses  or  other  metal  members  supporting  said  structure  shall  be  pro- 
tected against  fire  by  at  least  4  inches  of  fireproof  material  with  special 
provision  to  reinforce  or  support  it. 

Occupancy   Restricted. 

No  portion  of  any  building  hereafter  erected  or  altered,  used  or  in- 
tended to  be  used  as  a  theatre,  opera  house,  or  motion  picture  show, 
shall  be  occupied  or  used  for  any  business  dealing  in  any  article  or  ma- 
terial dangerous  to  life  in  the  opinion  of  the  Building  Inspector. 

The   before-mentioned   restrictions   relate   not   only   to    that  portion 
of  the  building  which  contains  the  auditorium  and  the  stage,  but  apply 
also  to  the  entire  structure   in  conjunction  therewith. 
Workshops  and  Property   Storerooms. 

No  workshop,  storage  or  general  property  room  shall  be  allowed  in 
or  under  the  auditorium,  above  the  stage  or  under  the  same,  or  in  any 
of  the  fly  galleries,  but  such  rooms  or  shops  may  be  located  in  the  rear 
of,  or  at  the  side  of  the  stage,  and  in  such  cases  they  shall  be  separated 
from  the  stage  vertically  and  horizontally  by  a  brick  or  concrete  wall  not 
less  than  12  inches  in  thickness  or  other  equally  efficient  cut-off,  and 
the  openings  leading  into  said  portion  shall  have  approved  self-closing 
fire  doors  on  one  side  of  the  wall.  (See  Rules  and  Requirements  of 
the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  for  Fire  Doors.) 

No   sleeping   accommodations    shall  be   allowed   in   any  part   of   the 
building  communicating  with  the   auditorium   or  stage. 
Entrance  Vestibules,   Lobbies,   Etc. 

Interior  walls  or  partitions  built  of  fireproof  materials  shall  separate 
the  auditorium  from  the  entrance  vestibule,  and  from  any  communicat- 
ing room  or  rooms  over  or  under  the  same,  also  from  any  lobbies,  corri- 
dors, refreshment  or  other  rooms  forming  part  of  the  theatre;  and  in  all 
such  walls  the  windows  and  door  frames  and  all  sash  and  doors  shall 


228  .'       MODERN  THEATRE.  CONSTRUCTION 

be  of  incombustible  construction,  and  the  sash  made  stationary  and 
glazed  with  wired  glass  not  less  than  Y<\  inch  in  thickness  and  each 
pane  or  unit  measuring  not  more  than  720  square  inches ;  the  doors 
shall  be  self-closing. 

Floors. 

All  floor  surfaces  shall  be  of  cement  or  other  incombustible  material 
and  no  wood  boards  or  sleepers  shall  be  used  as  a  covering  over  these 
floors,  seat  platforms,  aisles,  steps,  landings,  passages  or  stairs. 

Trim. 

No  combustible  doors  or  trim  shall  be  used  in  the  auditorium,  and 
none  of  the  walls  or  ceiling  shall  be  covered  with  wood  sheathing,  wood 
wainscoting,  or  other  combustible  material,  but  this  shall  not  preclude 
the  construction  of  a  wood  sounding  board  over  orchestra  pit  when  the 
same  extends  back  of  and  below  the  overhang  of  the  stage,  provided 
the  said  wood  sheathing  be  properly  fire  stopped  by  a  12-inch  brick 
wall  back  of  same,  and  also  have  a  proper  fireproof  construction  di- 
rectly under  the  overhang  of  the  stage  extending  from  the  brick  wall 
to  the  apron  of  stage. 

Tunnels  of  Cross  Aisles. 

There  shall  be  no  more  than  11  feet  rise,  measured  vertically  in  any 
aisle  in  any  gallery  without  direct  exit,  by  tunnel  or  otherwise  to  a 
corridor  or  passage  with  a  free  opening  to  the  gallery  stairs  or  other 
direct  discharge  to  the  street.  At  such  elevation  of  11  feet  or  less  an 
intervening  or  cross  aisle  leading  directly  to  an  exit  may  be  substituted 
for  the  tunnel.  No  such  tunnel  or  cross  aisle  shall  be  less  than  4  feet 
wide  in  the  clear. 

Gallery  Platforms. 

No  platforms  in  galleries  formed  to  receive  the  seats  shall  be  more 
than  21   inches  in  height  of  riser  nor  less  than  32  inches  in  width  of 
platform.    No  such  platform  shall  be  nearer  than  8  feet  from  the  ceiling. 
Aisles — Width  of. 

Aisles  shall  be  not  less  than  3  feet  wide  at   the  beginning  and  all 
aisles  shall  be  increased  in  width  toward  the  exits  and  entrances  at  the 
rate  of  not  less  than  3  inches  to  10  feet  of  run. 
Floors   at   Exits. 

Floors  in  auditorium  at  all  exits  shall  be  flush  with  adjacent  inside 
floors  and  shall  extend  for  an  unbroken  width  of  not  less  than  4  feet  in 
front  of  each  exit,  but  no  step  downward  shall  be  nearer  than  1  foot 
to  the  door  opening. 

Steps   in   Aisles. 

Steps  in  aisles  shall  be  the  full  width  of  the  aisle.  No  risers  shall 
be  more  than  9  inches  in  height,  and  no  tread  shall  be  less  than  10 
inches  in  width,  and  whenever  the  rise  of  seat  platforms  is  4  inches 
or  less,  the  floor  of  the  aisles   shall  be   made   as   a  gradient.     Where 


/  APPENDIX  229 

steps  are  placed  in  passages  they  shall  be  grouped  together  and  shall 
be  clearly  lighted.  No  stool,  seat  or  other  obstruction  shall  be  placed 
in  any  aisle. 

Passages — Width. 

The  width  of  passages  and  hallways  shall  be  computed  in  the  same 
manner  as  that  hereinafter  provided  for  stairways,  but  no  passage  may 
be  less  than  5  feet  in  width. 

All  passages,  hallways,  and  stairways  leading  from  any  balcony  or 
gallery  in  any  direction  shall  permit  of  free  passage  to  an  exit,  without 
returning. 

Passages — Aggregate  Capacity. 

The  aggregate  capacity  of  the  foyers,  lobbies,  hallways,  passages 
and  rooms  for  the  use  of  the  audience,  not  including  aisle  space,  shall 
on  each  tier  be  sufficient  to  contain  the  entire  number  to  be  accommo- 
dated on  said  tier,  in  the  ratio  of  150  superficial  square  feet  of  floor 
for  every  hundred  persons. 

Entrances  and  Exits — Definition. 

The  term  "exit"  as  used  in  this  section  refers  to  emergency  exits 
only;  the  term  "entrance"  refers  to  all  other  traffic  ingress  or  egress. 

Calculations. 

The  combined  width  of  entrances  and.  exits  for  each  tier,  likewise 
their  stairs,  shall  provide  1  foot  of  width  for  each  20  persons  to  be 
accommodated  in   that  tier. 

Entrances. 

A  common  place  of  entrance  may  serve  for  the  orchestra  floor  of 
the  auditorium  and  the  first  gallery,  provided  such  entrance  and  the 
passages  leading  thereto  are  of  the  width  required  for  the  aggregate 
capacity  of  these  two  tiers. 

Separate  places  of  entrance  shall  be  provided  for  each  gallery  above 
the  first. 

Exits — Minimum,  and -Fire  Doors  for. 

From  the  auditorium  at  least  two  exits  remote  from  each  other 
leading  into  open  courts  or  streets  shall  be  provided  in  each  of  both 
side  walls  of  the  auditorium  on  all  tiers.  Each  exit  shall  be  provided 
with   approved  fire  doors. 

Entrance   and   Exit   Doors — Minimum   Width. 

The  minimum  width  of  doorways  shall  be  5  feet  in  the  clear  except 
exit  doorways,  which  may  have  a  minimum  width  of  4  feet. 
Hanging  of  Doors. 

All  entrance  and  exit  doors  shall  open  outwardly  and  be  hung  in 
such  manner  as  not  to  obstruct  any  part  of  the  required  width  of  a 
doorway,  passage  or  stairway.  The  fastenings  of  these  doors  shall  be 
such  as  can  readily  be  opened  from  the  inside  at  all  times  without  the 
use  of  keys  or  any  special  knowledge  or  effort.  The  use  of  draw  bolts 
is  prohibited.     All  such  doorways  shall  be  entirely  unobstructed. 


230  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

Marking  Exits. 

Every    entrance    and    exit    doorway    opening    from    the    auditorium 
shall  have  over  the  same  on  the  auditorium  side  the  word  EXIT  in-  I 
scribed  in  legible  letters  not  less  than  6  inches  high,  or  an  illuminated 
sign  with  letters  of  the  same  height.     Auditorium  entrances  and  exits 
shall  be  numbered  with  figures  not  less  than  6  inches  high. 

No  mirrors  shall  be  so  placed  as  to  give  the  appearance  of  a  door- 
way, exit  or  passage.    There  shall  be  no  false  doors  or  windows. 
Diagram   of  Exits. 

There  shall  be  legibly  printed  on  the  program  of  each  performance 
a   separate  diagram   or  plan   of   every  tier.     Each   such   diagram   shall 
occupy  a  space  not  less  than  15  square  inches  and  shall  show  distinctly 
the  entrances  and  exits  from  each  tier  and  where  they  lead. 
Entrance  Corridors. 

Where  any  entrance  does  not  open  directly  on  a  street,  the  corridor 
or  passage  connecting  it  with  the  street  shall  be  constructed  of  con- 
tinuous walls  of  brick  or  other  fireproof  material  equally  efficient.  The 
roof  construction  of  these  corridors  must  be  fireproof  and  of  strength 
sufficient  to  safely  sustain  a  live  load  of  150  pounds  per  square  foot 
of  every  superficial  foot  thereof.  The  height  of  such  corridors  shall 
be  not  less  than  10  feet  throughout.  No  doors  or  windows  shall  be 
permitted  in  the  side  walls  or  roof. 

Stair  Landings. 

When  stairs  return  directly  on  themselves,  a  landing  of  the  full 
width  of  both  flights,  without  any  steps,  shall  be  provided.  The  outer 
line  of  landings  shall  be  curved  to  a  radius  of  not  less  than  2  feet; 
this  provision,  however,  shall  not  apply  to  emergency  exit  stairs  on  out- 
side of  buildings.  Stairs  turning  at  an  angle  shall  have  a  proper  landing. 
In  stairs  when  two  side  flights  connect  with  one  main  flight,  the  width 
of  the  main  flight  shall  be  at  least  equal,  to  the  aggregate  width  of  the 
side  flights.  No  stairway  shall  ascend  to  a  greater  height  than  12 
feet  without  a  level  landing,  and  the  length  and  width  of  such  landing 
shall  be  not  less  than  the  width  of  the  stairs ;  no  run  of  stairs  shall 
consist   of   less  than   six   risers   between   platforms. 

-Stair  Rails. 

All  stairs  shall  have  on  both  sides  strong  hand  rails.  Where  stairs 
are  built  between  walls  rails  shall  be  firmly  secured  to  the  walls  about 
3  inches  distant  therefrom.  All  rails  shall  be  about  3  feet  above  the 
center  of  the  treads.  This  provision  shall  also  apply  to  all  steps  in' 
side  aisles  of  galleries.  The  width  of  all  stairs  must  be  measured  be- 
tween hand  rails.  All  stairs  and  landings  between  stories,  when  seven 
(7)  feet  and  over  in  width,  shall  be  provided  with  a  center  hand  rail 
of  metal,  not  less  than  2  inches  in  diameter,  placed  at  a  height  of  about 
3  feet  above  the  center  of  the  treads  and  landings.     Such  rails  shall  be 


APPENDIX  231 

supported  on  wrought  metal  or  brass  standards  securely  bolted  to  the 
treads  or  risers  of  stairs,  or  both.  At  the  head  of  the  flight  of  stairs 
terminating  at  each  story,  the  post  or  standard  shall  be  at  least  6  feet 
in  height,  to  which  the  rail  shall  be  secured. 

Number  of  Steps  at  Entrance. 

The  entrance  opening  directly  on  a  street  shall  not  be  on  a  higher 
level  from  the  sidewalk  than  four  steps  of  724-inch  risers  each. 
Entrance  Stairs — Minimum  Width. 

Where  the  number  accommodated  in  a  gallery  exceeds  two  hundred, 
there  shall  be  at  least  two  separate  and  distinct  entrances.  No  entrance 
stairs  to  any  tier  in  the  auditorium  shall  be  less  than  5  feet  wide. 

Inclosures. 

All  entrance  stairways  for  the  use  of  the  audience  (excepting  those 
leading  to  the  first  gallery  only,  which  may  be  open  on  one  side),  shall 
be  inclosed  with  walls  of  brick  or  other  fireproof  materials,  in  the 
stories  through  which  they  pass.  There  shall  be  no  communications 
above  the  street  or  court  grade  in  any  of  said  stairway  inclosures  ex- 
cept the  communication  from  the  tier  for  which  the  stairway  is  ex- 
clusively intended.  No  stairway  from  a  gallery  shall  communicate  with 
the  basement  or  cellar.  No  door  shall  open  immediately  upon  a  flight 
of  stairs,  but  a  landing  at  least  the  width  of  the  door  shall  be  pro- 
vided between  such  stairs  and  such  door. 

Treads  and  Risers. 

All  stairs  shall  have  treads  of  uniform  width  and  risers  of  uniform 
height  throughout  in  each  flight.  In  no  case  shall  the  risers  in  any 
stairs  exceed  7^4  inches  in  height  nor  shall  the  treads,  exclusive  of 
nosing,  be  less  than  9T/2  inches  wide.  No  circular  or  winding  stairs  shall 
be  permitted  and  no  winders  may  be  introduced  in  any  stairs. 
Entrance  Stairs,  Stage  Section. 

Entrance  stairs  and  passages  for  the  dressing  rooms  shall  be  at  least 
36  inches  wide  and  extend  independently  to  the  street  or  court.  No 
stairs  in  the  stage  section  shall  be  less  than  30  inches  wide.  At  least 
2  independent  staircases,  with  direct  exterior  outlets  at  court  or  street 
grade,  shall  be  provided  for  the  service  of  all  tiers  in  the  stage  section, 
and  shall  be  located  on  opposite  sides  of  the  stage. 
Exit  Stairs  and  Balconies. 

Exit  stairs  from  each  gallery  shall  be  placed  in  smokeproof  and 
fireproof  towers,  or  in  lieu  thereof,  an  approved  form  of  open  air  stair- 
way may  be  used.  The  minimum  width  of  exit  stairways  shall  be  4  feet, 
except  that  their  width  may  be  reduced  fifteen  per  cent  if  located  in  a 
fireproof  and  smokeproof  tower  having  no  openings  except  to  an  out- 
side balcony  and  to  court  grade.  Exit  stairs  shall  have  risers  not  ex- 
ceeding 7Y\  inches,  and  treads  not  less  than  9^  inches  exclusive  of 
nosing.    The  stairs  for  the  exits  from  each  tier  shall  extend  to  the  court 


232  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

or  street  grade  independently  of  the  stairs  or  exits  from  other  tiers. 
Outside  balconies  shall  be  at  least  as  wide  as  the  stairways  which  they 
serve,  but  in  no  case  less  than  6  feet.  No  riser  shall  be  nearer  than 
1  foot  to  the  door  opening. 

Construction  of  Balconies  and  Stairs  for  Exits. 

All  exit  balconies  and  stairs  shall  be  constructed  of  steel  throughout 
or  of  other  forms  of  incombustible  construction  approved  by  the  Build- 
ing Inspector.  Risers,  treads,  platforms  and  balconies  must  be  solid, 
without  slats,  and  the  construction  shall  be  of  strength  sufficient  to  safely 
sustain  a  live  load  of  100  pounds  per  square  foot.  Sheet  metal  or  other 
suitable  solid  material  shall  be  provided  to  a  height  of  not  less  than 
4  feet  on  the  outer  side  of  all  these  open  air  stairs,  balconies  and  plat- 
forms. All  open  air  stairs,  balconies  and  platforms  shall  be  covered 
with  a  metal  hood  or  awning  to  be  constructed  in  such  a  manner  as  shall 
be  approved  by  the  Building  Inspector.  There  shall  be  no  openings  in 
any  theatre  wall  between  the  outside  balconies  or  stairways  and  their 
covers,  except  the  required  exits  from  the  tier  served  by  said  stairs  and 
balconies.  No  person  of  the  audience  must  be  obliged  to  pass  alongside 
of  more  than  one  exit  doorway  after  reaching  an  outside  balcony  to 
get  to  the  ground.  All  exit  stairs  and  balconies  shall  be  kept  free  of 
obstructions  of  every  kind  including  snow  and  ice. 

Exits  from   Stage  Section  and  Dressing  Rooms. 

At  least  two  independent  exterior  exits  shall  be  provided  on  a  level 
with  the  stage  for  the  service  of  the  stage  and  floors  below  same.  These 
exits  shall  be  at  opposite  sides  of  the  stage.  Each  tier  of  dressing  rooms 
shall  have  an  independent  exit  leading  directly  to  a  fire  escape  or  to  a 
court  or  street.  No  ladder  fire  escapes  shall  be  permitted.  The  fly  gal- 
leries shall  be  provided  with  adequate  means  of  exit.  All  exits  and  fire 
escapes  from  the  stage  section  shall  be  independent  of  the  exits  for  the 
audience  above  the  court  or  street  grade.  Stairs,  if  any,  leading  down 
from  stage  level  shall  be  inclosed  and  protected  by  fireproof  door. 
Street  Fronts  and  Entrances  Thereon. 

Every  building  used  for  theatrical  or  operatic  purposes  or  motion 
picture  shows  shall  have  at  least  the  front  or  one  side  wall  bordering  on  a 
street,  and  not  less  than  one-half  of  the  openings  required  for  entrance 
of  the  audience  to  the  auditorium  as  hereafter  specified  shall  be  pro- 
vided in  such1  wall  or  walls. 

Emergency  Courts,  When  Required. 

There  shall  be  reserved  for  exit  purposes  an  open  court  or  space  on 
the  side  or  sides  of  the  building  as  follows : 

In  the  case  of  a  plot  with  streets  on  front,  rear  and  both  sides,  or 
in  the  case  of  a  double  corner  plot  where  both  sides  of  the  theatre  border 
on  the  streets,  no  courts  will  be  required.     On  a  double  corner,  single 


APPENDIX  233 

corner  or  inside  plot  when  one  side  only  of  the  building  borders  on  a 
street,  one  court  will  be  required  located  on  the  opposite  side.  On  an 
inside  plot  where  only  the  building  front  borders  on  the  street,  courts 
will  be   required  on  both  sides. 

In  buildings  used  for  motion  picture  shows  and  having  no  stage, 
the  exits  and  courts  above  required  may  be  replaced  by  equivalent 
exits  and  courts  at  the  rear  if  consistent  with  the  adequate  distribu- 
tion of  the  entire  entrance  and  exit  facilities. 

Court  Width. 

The  minimum  width  of  open  courts  shall  be  8  feet  when  the  total 
capacity  is  750  or  less;'  10  feet  when  the  capacity  is  between  750  and 
1,000;  and  when  the  capacity  exceeds  1,000  people  the  width  of  the 
courts  shall  be  increased  1  foot  for  each  additional  500  people  or  frac- 
tion thereof  in  excess  of   1,000. 

Court  Length. 

Said  open  court  or  courts  shall  extend  at  least  from  the  line  of  the 
proscenium  wall  forward  the  length  of  the  auditorium  to  the  wall 
separating  the  same  from  the  entrance'  lobby  or  vestibule.  This  entire 
court  area  shall  be  open  to  the  sky,  except  that  stairs  and  smokeproof 
towers  may  occupy  part  of  the  court  space  if  the  required  width  of 
exit  passageway  is  not  obstructed. 

Court   Corridors. 

Where  said  emergency  courts  do  not  open  directly  on  a  street  a 
separate  and  distinct  corridor  or  passage  shall  continue  directly  to  the 
street,  around  the  building  or  through  such  structure  as  may  be  or 
may  have  been  built  on  the  street,  but  no  such  passageway  shall  pass 
under  any  portion  of  the  auditorium  or  stage.  Said  corridors  ^or  pas- 
sages shall  be  constructed  fireproof  all  the  way  to  the  street  in  same 
manner  as  provided  for  the  construction  of  corridors  for  entrances 
hereinbefore  described.  The  corridor  or  passage  leading  from  the 
court  to  the  street  shall  be  at  least  as  wide  as  the  court  and  there  shall 
be  no  projections  into  the  passage.  The  outer  openings  may  be  pro- 
vided with  doors  or  gates  opening  outward.  During  the  performance 
these  doors  or  gates  shall  be  kept  open;  at  other  times  they  may  be 
closed  and   fastened  by  movable  bolts. 

Entrances  in   Courts.   ■ 

If  entrances  open  on  emergency  courts  or  corridors  the  said  courts 
or  corridors  must  be  increased  in  width  an  amount  at  least  equal  to 
the  width  of  the  entrances  which  they  serve. 

Courts  and  Corridors  Kept  Clear. 

The  courts  and  corridors  or  passages  shall  not  be  used  for  storage 
purposes,  nor  for  any  purpose  whatsoever  except  for  exit  and  en- 
trance, and  must  be  kept   free  and  clear  during  performances 


234  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

Gradients. 

All  courts  and  corridors  at  points  of  street  entrance  or  exit  must 
be  flush  with  sidewalk.  To  overcome  any  difference  of  level  in  and 
between  courts,  corridors,  lobbies,  passages  and  aisles  on  the  ground 
floor,  gradients  shall  be  employed  of  not  over  1  foot  in  10  feet,  except 
that  runs  of  not  more  than  10  feet  in  length  may  be  1  in  8. 
Proscenium   Wall. 

A  fire  wall  built  of  brick  or  concrete  not  less  than  12  inches  thick 
at  any  portion  shall  separate  the  auditorium  from  the  stage  and  shall 
extend  at  least  4  feet  above  the  stage  roof,  or  the  auditorium  roof  if 
the  latter  be  higher.  Any  windows  in  the  structure  above  the  audito- 
rium which  face  over  roof  of  stage  section  when  within  100  feet  of 
the  stage  roof  must  be  protected  with  fire  shutters  or  wired  glass  win- 
dows in  metal  sashes  and  frames.  Above  the  proscenium  opening 
there  shall  be  a  girder  or  other  support  of  sufficient  strength  to  safely 
carry  the  load.  If  a  girder  be  used  it  shall  be  protected  against  fire 
by  at  least  4  inches  of  fireproof  material  with  special  provision  to  re- 
inforce or  support  it. 

Proscenium   Curtain. 

The  proscenium  opening  shall  be  provided  with  a  rigid  fireproof 
curtain,  built  in  conformity  with  the  following  specifications,  or  their 
equivalent  in  efficiency   when  approved  by  the  Building  Inspector. 

The  curtain  shall  have  a  rigid,  rivet- jointed,  steel  framework.  The 
front  or  audience  side  of  the  frame  shall  be  covered  with  sheet  steel 
of  a  thickness  not  less  than  No.  16  U.  S.  gauge.  The  back  shall  be 
covered  with  vitrified  cellular  asbestos  boards  at  least  1  inch  thick, 
or  other  material  equally  fire  resisting.  Both  coverings  shall  be  se- 
curely attached  to  the  framework  and  the  joints  properly  sealed.  The 
curtain  shall  be  designed  to  resist  a  wind  pressure  of  10  pounds  per 
square  foot  of  surface  without  flexure  sufficient  to  interfere  with  its 
closing. 

The  thickness  of  the  curtain  shall  be  not  less  than  3  inches  where 
the  width  of  the  proscenium  wall  opening  is  30  feet  or  less,  and  cur- 
tains for  larger  openings  shall  increase  in  thickness  in  proportion  to 
the  increase  in  width  of  opening  they  cover. 

An  asbestos  roll  of  a  diameter  not  less  than  one-half  the  thickness 
of  the  curtain,  shall  be  securely  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  curtain 
to  form  a  smoke  seal  between  the  curtain  and  the  stage. 

The  curtain  shall  overlap  th«e  proscenium  wall  opening  at  least  12 
inches  at  each  side  of  the  opening  and  not  less  than  2  feet  at  the  top. 

The  guide  members  at  the  sides  shall  be  rolled  steel  shapes,  none 
of  which  shall  be  less  than  Y%  inch  thick,  and  shall  be  of  such  char- 
acter as  to  form  a  continuous  smoke  stop  from  top  to  bottom,  with 
a  clearance  of  not  over  }i   inch,  except  that   1   inch   shall  be  allowed 


APPENDIX  235 

at  each  edge  of  curtain  to  provide  for  lateral  expansion.  They  shall 
be  installed  in  such  manner  that  in  case  of  fire  on  the  stage  the  pres- 
sure of  heated  gases  against  the  curtain  will  act  to  close  the  guide 
joints  tightly.  Provision  shall  be  made  to  prevent  the  curtain  from 
getting  out  of  the  guiding  channel  into  which  it  shall  project  at  least 
2  inches.  The  proscenium  wall  shall  have  an  offset  at  each  side  of  the 
opening,  so  located  and  of  such  thickness  and  height  as  to  be  suitable 
for  the  attachment  of  the  curtain  guides. 

The  wall  over  the  proscenium  opening  shall  be  smooth  and  plumb 
to  approximately  the  top  of  the  curtain  when  it  is  down,  and  shall 
then  offset  at  least  4  inches  for  the  rest  of  its  height,  thus  leaving 
a  bench  along  the  line  of  the  top  of  the  curtain  between  which  a  smoke 
seal  shall  be  formed.  Such  a  seal  may  conveniently  be  provided  by 
arranging  for  the  edge  of  a  rolled  steel  shape  attached  to  the  curtain 
to  dip  into  a  trough  of  sand  resting  on  the  bench. 

No  part  of  a  curtain  or  any  of  the  curtain  guides  shall  be  supported 
by,  or   fastened   to,   any  combustible  material. 

The  hoisting  apparatus  for  the  curtain  shall  be  designed  with  a 
factor  of  safety  of  8. 

The  points  for  cUrtain  suspension  shall  always  be  an  even  number, 
but  never  less  than  four.  Two  of  the  suspension  points  shall  be  located 
at  the  extreme  ends  of  the  curtain,  and  the  others  may  be  placed  at 
such  points  as  best  suit  the  design,  but  in  no  case  shall  the  distance 
between  any  two  points  of  support  exceed  10  feet. 

Half  of  the  cables  attached  to  these  points  shall  lead  to  one  set  of 
counterweights  and  half  to  another.  The  curtain  shall  be  operated 
by  hydraulic  or  other  mechanism  approved  by  the  Building  Inspector. 
If  hydraulic  mechanism  is  used,  the  water  may  be  taken  from  either  the 
house  tank  or  sprinkler  tank  supply.  If  from  the  latter,  the  supply  pipe 
for  curtain  mechanism  shall  be  so  located  in  the  tank  that  it  cannot 
reduce  the  quantity  of  water  below  the  amount  necessary  to  fulfill  the 
sprinkler  requirements. 

The  device  for  controlling  the  curtain  shall  be  simple  in  design,  and 
capable  of  convenient  operation  from  both  sides  of  the  stage  and  from 
the  tie  galleries. 

The  drop  speed  of  the  curtain  shall  be  uniform  and  not  less  than 
1  foot  per  second,  but  when  the  curtain  is  about  2^2  feet  from  the 
stage  it  shall  automatically  slow  down  so  as  to  settle  on  the  stage 
without  shock.  In  addition  to  the  regular  operating  mechanism,  there 
shall  be  an  emergency  device  which  will  cut  off  the  power  and  allow 
the  curtain  to  drop  by  gravity.  This  device  shall  be  so  arranged  that 
it  can  be  easily  operated  by  hand  from  each  side  of  the  stage,  under 
the  stage,  and  in  the  tie  galleries.  The  device  shall  also  be  so  designed 
that  its  operation  will  be  controlled  by  fusible  links  located  at  each  of 
the  above  named  points. 


236  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

The  audience  side  of  the  curtain  may  be  decorated  with  a  paint  in 
which  no  oil  is  used.  No  combustible  material  shall  be  applied  or 
attached  to  the  curtain. 

Drawings  for  every  such  curtain  shall  be  submitted  to  the  Building 
Inspector,  and  be  approved  by  him  before  it  is  erected. 
Counterweights. 

Where  counterweights  are  used  they  shall  be  suspended  at  the  ex- 
treme side  or  other  walls  of  the  stage  section,  and  be  inclosed  by  guards. 
Other  Openings  in  Proscenium  Wall. 

Openings  between  the  stage  and  auditorium  other  than  the  pros- 
cenium opening  shall  not  exceed  4  in  number,  2  at  the  approximate 
stage  level  and  2  in  the  musician's  pit;  the  size  of  any  such  openings 
shall  not  exceed  21  square  feet.  The  openings  at. stage  level  shall  have 
an  automatic  standard  fire  door  on  one  side  of  the  wall  and  a  self- 
closing  fire  door  at  the  other  side  of  the  wall,  and  openings ,  of 
any,  below  the  stage  shall  have  a  self-closing  standard  fire  door; 
all  of  said  doors  shall  be  hung  so  as  to  foe  opened  from  either  side  of 
the  wall  at  all  times. 

Stage  Section,  Overhang  of  Stage. 

All  that  portion  of  the  stage  extending  from  the  stage  side  of  the 
fireproof  curtain  and  from  the  fireproof  wall  separating  the  space  under 
the  stage  from  the  auditorium  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  apron  shall  be 
fireproof ^  A  wood  finish  floor  without  air  space  may  be  used  in  front 
of  the  curtain  and  on  the  stage. 

Openings  in  Exterior  Walls. 
All  openings  in,  exterior  walls  of  stage  section  shall  be  protected  by 
approved   fire  doors,   shutters  or  wired   glass   windows  in  metal   sashes 
and  frames. 

Entrance  Vestibules. 
All  entrances  to  the  stage  from  the  streets,  alleys  or  open  courts  must 
be  vestibuled  to  protect  the  stage  from  draughts  of  air. 

Fireproof    Stage    Construction. 

All  that  portion  of  the  stage  which  is  not  movable  (excepting  that 
part  usually  embraced  between  the  proscenium  jambs  and  from  pros- 
cenium to  rear  wall)  shall  be  of  fireproof  construction  and  designed 
to  safely  sustain  a  live  load  of  not  less  than  100  pounds  per  square  foot 
The  non-fireproof  portion  of  stage  floor  shall  be  of  heavy  timbers  or 
steel  beam  construction  with  flooring  not  less  than  1^4  inch  finished 
thickness. 

Fly  and  Tie  Galleries. 

The  fly  galleries  and  the  tie  galleries  shall  be  of  fireproof  construc- 
tion designed  to  safely  sustain  a  live  load'' of  90  pounds  per  square  foot. 
No  wood  boards  or  sleepers  shall  be  used  as  covering  over  these  floors. 


APPENDIX  237 

Gridiron. 

The  gridiron  or  rigging  loft  shall  have  a  lattice  metal  floor  capable 
of  sustaining  a  live  load  of  75  pounds  per  square  foot  and  be  readily 
accessible  by  metal  stairs. 

Scenery. 

All    stage    scenery,    curtains    and    decorations    made    of    combustible 
material,  and  all  woodwork  on  or  about  the  stage,  shall  be  painted  or- 
saturated   with   some   non-combustible   material,   or  otherwise   rendered 
safe  against  fire. 

Ventilation   in    Stage   Section. 

There  shall  be  one  or  more  ventilators  constructed  of  metal  or  other 
incombustible  material,  near  the  center  and  above  the  highest  part  of 
the  stage  of  every  theatre,  opera  house  or  motion  picture  show,  raised 
above  the  stage  roof,  and  of  a  combined  sectional  area  equal  to  at  least 
10  per  cent  of  the  floor  area  within  the  stage  walls.  The  openings  in 
such  ventilators  shall  have  an  aggregate  sectional  area  at  least  equal 
to  that  required  for  the  ventilators.  Detailed  drawings  showing  the 
construction  and  operation  of  the  ventilators  must  be  approved  by  the 
Building  Inspector  before  installation  is  begun.  The  entire  equipment 
shall  conform  to  the  following  requirements  or  their  equivalent: 

The  construction  of  the  cover  and  its  operating  mechanism  shall 
be  massive  and  the  cover  shall  open  by  force  of  gravity  sufficient 
to  effectively  overcome  the  effects  of  neglect,  rust,  dirt,  frost,  snow  or 
expansion  by  heat,  twisting  or  warping  of  the  framework. 

Glass  if  used  in  ventilators  must  be  protected  against  falling  on 
the  stage.  A  wire  screen  if  used  under  the  glass  must  be  so  placed 
that  if  clogged  it  cannot  reduce  the  required  vent  area  or  interfere 
with  the  operating  mechanism,  or  obstruct  the  distribution  of  water 
from  the  automatic  sprinklers. 

The  cover  shall  be  arranged  to  open  instantly  after  the  outbreak  of 
fire  by  the  use  of  approved  automatic  fusible  links  of  the  thinnest  metal 
practicable;  manual  control  also  must  be  provided  by  a  cord  run  down 
to  the  stage  at  a  point  designated  by  the  Building  Inspector. 

The  link  and  cord  must  hold  the  cover  closed  against  a  force  of  at 
least  30  pounds  excess  counterweight  tending  to  open  the  cover.  Fus- 
ible links  shall  be  placed  in  the  ventilator  above  the  roof  line  and  in 
at  least  two  other  points  in  each  controlling  cord.  No  automatic 
sprinkler  heads  shall  be  placed  in  the  ventilator  space  above  the  fusible 
links.  Each  ventilator  cover  shall  be  operated  daily  while  theatre  is  in 
use  by  one  of  the  cords. 

Skylights. 

If  any  skylight  is  placedj  in  a  roof,  it  shall  be  installed  in  accordance 
with  the  specifications  for  skylights  published  by  the  National  Board 
of  Fire  Underwriters. 


238  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

Dressing    Rooms — Location. 

Actors'   dressing  rooms   shall  not  be  placed  on   or   under  the  stage, 

or  in  or  under   the   auditorium.     They   shall  be   placed   in   a   separate 

section  provided  for  that  purpose.     No  dressing  room  ceiling  shall  be 

less  than  4  feet,  6  inches  above  the  level  of  street  or  court  adjoining. 

Construction. 
The  walls  separating  said  section  containing  the  dressing  rooms 
from  the  stage  or  auditorium  shall  be  of  brick  or  concrete  not  less  than 
8  inches  in  thickness  and  each  opening  therein  shall  be  protected  with  a 
self-closing  fire  door.  The  partitions  dividing  the  dressing  rooms,  to- 
gether with  the  partitions  of  every  passageway  from  the  same  to  the 
stage  shall  be  constructed  of  approved  fireproof  material  not  less  than 
4  inches  in  thickness.  All  doorways  in  any  of  said  partitions  shall  be 
protected  by  self-closing  fire  doors.  All  dressing  rooms  shall  be  ven- 
tilated by  wired  glass  windows  in  metal  frames  to  a  street  or  to  a 
court  not  less  than  24  square  feet  in  area. 

Dressing  Rooms — Trim. 
All  shelving  and  cupboards   in  every  dressing  room,  property  room 
or  other  storage  rooms,   shall  be  of   incombustible  material. 
Heating    Apparatus — Location. 
Steam  boilers  shall  be  located  outside  of  the  buildings,  either  under 
the   sidewalk   or  in  an  extension,  but  in  no  case  under  or  within  any 
portion  of  the  building,  and  the  space  allotted  to  the  same  shall  be  in- 
closed by  walls  of  brick  or  concrete  at  least  12  inches  thick  on  all  sides, 
and  the  ceiling  of  such  space  shall  be  constructed  of  fireproof  materials. 
Each  doorway  in  said  walls  connecting  with  the  building  shall  have  an 
automatic  fire  door. 

Floor  Registers. 
No   floor   register   for   heating,    ventilating  or   other   purposes    shall 
be  permitted  in  aisles,  corridors  or  passageways. 

Blowers. 
All  blowers  used  to  circulate  air  through  heating  or  ventilating  pipes 
with  openings  to  the  auditorium  shall  be  provided  with  a  device  to  stop 
the  blower  automatically  in  case  of  fire.  Fusible  links  for  this  purpose 
shall  be  located  near  the  blower,  both  inside  and  outside  the  pipe  lead- 
ing to  openings  in  the  auditorium. 

Radiators. 
No  coil,  radiator  or  pipe  shallbe  placed  so  as  to  obstruct  any  aisle 
or  passageway.     Any  exposed  radiator  or  coil  shall  be  guarded. 

Lighting. 
The  stage  section  and  every  portion  of  the  building  devoted  to  the 
uses  or  accommodation  of  the  public,  also  all  passages  leading  to  streets, 
including  the  open  courts  and  corridors  shall  be  satisfactorily  lighted 


APPENDIX  239 

during  every  performance   and   until  the   entire   audience   has   left   the 
premises. 

Kind. 

Only  electric  light  shall  be  used  in  the  auditorium  and  stage  section, 
except  that  gas  fixtures  having  not  larger  than  "one  foot"  burners  may 
be  used  in  dressing  rooms.  These  shall  have  soldered  to  the  fixture 
strong  wire  guards  or  screens  not  less  than  10  inches  in  diameter,  so 
constructed  that  any  material  in  contact  therewith  shall  be  out  of  reach 
of  the  flames. 

Supplies. 

Where  electric  current  from  two  separate  street  mains  is  available, 
two  separate  and  distinct  services  must  be  installed ;  one  service  to  be 
of  sufficient  capacity  to  supply  current  for  the  entire  equipment  of  the 
theatre,  while  the  other  service  must  be  at  least  sufficient  to  supply 
current  for  all  emergency  lights,  including  the  exit  lights  or  signs, 
and  all  lights  in  outside  courts,  lobbies,  stairways,  corridors  and  other 
portions  of  the  theatre  which  are  normally  kept  lighted  during  the  per- 
formance. Where  only  one  supply  from  a  street  main  is  available  the 
connection  used  exclusively  for  emergency  lights  must  be  taken  from  a 
point  on  the  street  side  of  the  main  service  fuses.  When  the  source  of 
supply  is  an  isolated  plant  on  the  same  premises  an  auxiliary  service  at 
least  sufficient  to  supply  all  emergency  lights  shall  be  connected  with 
some  outside  source,  or  a  suitable  storage  battery  within  the  premises 
may  be  considered  the  equivalent  of  such  service. 
Exit  and  Entrance  Lights. 

Where  illuminated  signs  are  not  provided  there  shall  be  at  least  one 
red  light  over  each  exit  and  entrance  opening  from  the  auditorium  and 
stage  sections. 

Lighting  Controls. 

All  "emergency  lights"  shall  be  controlled  by  a  special  switch  located 
in  the  lobby  and  accessible  only)  to  authorized  persons. 
Stage    Switchboard. 

The  stage  switchboard* shall  have  a  metal  hood  over  the  top,  running 
the  full  length  of  the  board  and  fully  protecting  same  from  anything 
falling  from  above. 

Automatic  Sprinkler  Equipment. 

A  standard  wet-pipe  system  of  approved  automatic  sprinklers  shall 
be  installed  throughout  the  theatre,  except  in  the  auditorium,  foyers 
and  lobbies.  Sprinklers  will  not  be  permitted  over  dynamos  and  switch- 
boards or  above  the  fusible  links  immediately  under  the  automatic  ven- 
tilators over  stage. 

Water  Supply. 

There  should  be  at  least  two  independent  water  supplies  to  the  auto- 
matic sprinklers.    The  following  are  approved  sources  of  water  supplies : 


240  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

a.  Public  Water  Works  : 

The  system  to  give  not  less  than  25  pounds  static  pressure  at  all 
hours  of  the  day  at  highest  line  of  sprinklers. 

b.  Pressure   Tank : 

The  tank  shall  be  located  approximately  at  the  level  of  the  highest 
line  of  sprinklers.  The  total  capacity  shall  be  not  less  than  5,000  gal- 
lons (3,300  gallons  of  water),  and  in  any  event  the  tank  or  tanks  shall 
contain  sufficient  water  to  supply  25  per  cent  of  the  greatest  number 
of  sprinklers  with  an  "area"  for  twenty  minutes  with  an  average  dis- 
charge of  twenty  gallons  per  minute  per  sprinkler. 

c.  Gravity  Tank : 

A  gravity  tank  shall  contain  an  available  quantity  of  water  sufficient 
to  supply  50  per  cent  of  the  number  of  sprinklers  in  one  "area,"  to 
which  it  gives  protection,  for  20  minutes,  with  an  average  discharge  per 
sprinkler  of  20  gallons  per  minute,  but  tank  shall  not  be  less  than  5,000 
gallons  available  capacity. 

Elevation  of  bottom  of  tank  above  highest  line  of  sprinklers  on 
system  which  it  supplies   shall  be  not  less  than  20  feet. 

d.  Fire  Pump : 

Fire  pump  of  not  less  than  500  gallons  capacity  per  minute,  and 
sufficient  to  supply  50  per  cent  of  the  number  of  sprinklers  within  an 
"area"  with  an  average  discharge  per  sprinkler  of  20  gallons  a  minute. 
The  pump  is  to  be  so  located  on  premises  as  to  be  free  from  damage  by 
fire  or  other  causes.  The  pump  room  shall  be  readily  accessible  and 
easy  of  safe  egress  for  attendant.  Water  shall  be  taken  from  an 
approved  source,  having  sufficient  capacity  to  supply  pump  for  not  less 
than  60  minutes,  while  pump  is  delivering  its  rated  capacity.  A  surge 
tank  of  not  less  than  5,000  gallons  capacity  shall  be  provided  when  the 
supply  from  the  street  main  is  not  sufficient.  Power  to  drive  pump, 
whether  steam  or  electricity,  shall  be  constant  and  properly  safeguarded. 
Fire  Department  Connection. 

In  addition  to  two  of  the  above  required  supplies  there  shall  be  an 
approved  Siamese  Fire  Department  connection  not  less  than  4  inches 
in  diameter,  placed  on  the  outside  of  the  building  at  each  street  front, 
installed  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  Fire  Department 
and  with  suitable  metal  plate  with  raised  letters  securely  attached  to 
the  wall  near  the  connection  reading  "Automatic  Sprinklers." 

Standpipes. 

Standpipes  shall  be  provided  not  less  than  4  inches  in  diameter  of 
wrought  iron  or  galvanized  steel,  with  hose  connections,  located  as 
follows :  One  on  each  side  of  the  stage  on  each  tier,  one  readily  acces- 
sible from  the  property  room,  the  carpenter  shop,  scenery  storage  rooms, 
lobbies  and  elsewhere  as  may  be  required  by  the  Department  having 
jurisdiction.     These   standpipes,    together   with   fittings   and   connection, 


APPENDIX  241 

shall  be  of  such  strength  as  to  safely  withstand  at  least  300  pounds 
water  pressure  to  the  square  inch  when  installed  and  ready  for  service 
without  leakage  at  joints,  valves  or  fittings,  and  shall  be  provided  with 
hose  connections  fitted  with  approved  straightway  gate  valves  at  hose 
outlets. 

Water  Supplies  for  Standpipes. 

Said  standpipes  shall  be  kept  constantly  filled  with  water  under 
pressure,  and  shall  be  supplied  by  at  least  one  of  the  following  sources : 
Water  works,  gravity  tank,  pressure  tank,  or  fire  pump. 

The  capacities  and  pressure  shall  be  in  accordance  with  the  require- 
ments of  the  department  having  jurisdiction. 

Fire  Department  Connection.  " 

In  addition  to  one  or  more  of  the  above  required  supplies  there  shall 
be  an  approved  Siamese  Fire  Department  connection  placed  on  the  out- 
side of  building  at  each  street  front,  installed  in  accordance  with  the 
requirements  of  the  Fire  Department,  with  suitable  metal  plate  having 
raised  letters  securely  attached  to  wall  near  the  connection,  reading 
"Standpipe." 

Hose. 

A  sufficient  quantity  of  approved  linen  hose,  V/2,  inches  in  diameter, 
in  50-foot  lengths  or  enough  to  cover  floor  area,  shall  be  kept  attached 
to  each  hose  connection ;  25-foot  lengths  will  be  permitted  in  fly  gal- 
leries. Hose  shall  be  placed  on  approved  racks  ano^  fitted  with  standard 
couplings  at  each  end.  Each  line  of  hose  shall  be  fitted  with  short 
play-pipe,  with  ^-inch  smooth  bore  nozzle  and  provided  with  washers 
at  both  ends.  Spanners  shall  be  located  at  each  hose  connection  through- 
out the  building. 

Miscellaneous  Fire  Appliances. 

There  shall  be  on  each  side  of  the  stage  two  axes,  one  20  foot,  one 
15  foot  and  one  10  foot  hook,  as  designated  by  the  Fire  Department. 
On  each  side  of  the  stage,  under  the  stage,  on  each  fly  gallery,  also  in 
property  and  other  store  rooms  and  in  each  workshop,  there  shall  be 
kept  in  readiness  for  immediate  use  one  approved  2^-gallon  hand 
chemical  fire  extinguisher  and  one  40-gallon  cask  filled  with  water,  and 
6  fire  pails ;  said  casks  and  buckets  shall  be  painted  red  and  lettered  "For 
Fire  Purposes  Only."  There  shall  also  be  provided  at  least  three  ap- 
proved 2^-gallon  hand  chemical  fire  extinguishers  for  each  tier  of  the 
auditorium. 

Fire  Apparatus  Under  Control  of  Fire  Department. 

All  apparatus  for  the  extinguishment  of  fire  shall  be  installed  in 
accordance  with  the  rules  of  the  Fire  Department  and  be  kept  at  all 
times  in  condition  satisfactory  to  and  under  control  of  the  Fire  Depart- 
ment. 


BOROUGH  OF  MANHATTAN. 

ARTICLE  24. 
Motion  Picture  Theatres. 
(In  Effect  March  30,  1915.) 

Section  500  Plans. 

501  Restrictions. 

502  Construction. 

503  Means  of  Egress. 

504  Booth  for  Projecting-Machine  and  Film. 

505  Application  to  Existing  Theatres. 

506  Open-Air   Motion   Picture  Theatres. 

500.  Plans.  Before  the  erection,  construction  or  alteration  of  a 
building  or  part  thereof,  to  be  used  as  a  motion  picture  theatre,  as  de- 
fined in  paragraph  30  of  chapter  3  of  this  ordinance,  there  must  be  filed 
with  the  appropriate  superintendent  of  buildings  complete  plans  and 
detailed  statement  of  the  specifications  therefor,  required  by  paragraph  3 
of  this  chapter.  The  plans  must  show1  clearly  and  fully  the  location  and 
width  of  all  aisles,  passageways,  exits,  stairways  and  fire  escapes;  the 
arrangement  of  seats;  the  size  of  floor  beams,  walls  and  supports;  the 
location  and  construction  of  apparatus;  a  diagram  of  the  lot  or  plot  upon 
which  the  theatre  is  to  be  erected  or  constructed,  showing  the  outlets 
from  all  exits,  and  also  such  other  statements,  plans  and  details  as  may 
be  required  by  the   superintendent  of  buildings   having  jurisdiction. 

501.  Restrictions.  No  motion  picture  theatre,  as  defined  aforesaid, 
shall  be  constructed  in  a  frame  building  within  the  fire  limits,  nor  in  a 
hotel,  tenement  house  or  lodging  house,  nor  in  a  factory  or  workshop, 
except  where  the  theatre  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  building  by 
unpierced  fire  walls  and  floors,  and  in  no  case  shall  such  a  theatre  be 
constructed  or  operated  above  or  below  the  ground  floor  of  any  building. 

502.  Construction.  In  all  motion  picture  theatres,  as  defined  afore- 
said, to  be  hereafter  constructed,  the  following  requirements  shall  be 
complied  with,  namely: 

1.  Ceilings.  The  ceilings  of  all  theatres  and  of  all  rooms  used  in 
connection  therewith  shall  be  plastered  with  3  coats  of  first-class  plaster 
on  wire  mesh  or  metal  lath,  or  covered  with  ^2-inch  plaster  boards,  and 
plastered  or  covered  with  metal.  If  there  be  a  basement  or  cellar,  the 
ceiling  under  the  floor  of  the  theatre  must  be  plastered  with  3  coats  of 
first  class  plaster  on  wire  mesh  or  expanded  metal  lath,  or  may  be  covered 
with  metal  on  ^2 -inch  plaster  iboards. 

242 


APPENDIX  243 

2.  Floor-loads.  The  flooring  of  that  portion  of  the  building  de- 
voted to  the  uses  or  accommodation  of  the  public  must  be  of  sufficient 
strength  to  bear  safely  a  live  load  of  90  pounds  per  square  foot. 

3.  Galleries  and  Stairways.  A  gallery  may  be  permitted  except  in  a 
theatre  constructed  on  a  lot  less  than  20  feet  in  width,  but  it  shall  not 
include  more  than  25  per  cent  of  the  total  seating  capacity  of  the  theatre. 
Entrance  to  and  exit  from  the  gallery  shall  in  no  case  lead  to  the  main 
floor  of  the  theatre,  and  the  gallery  shall  be  provided  with  a  stairway 
or  stairways  equipped  with  handrails  on  both  sides.  Stairways  over  7 
feet  wide  shall  be  provided  with  centre  handrails.  The  risers  of  the 
stairways  shall  not  exceed  1Y\  inches,  and  the  treads,  excluding  nosings, 
shall  not  be  less  than  9>2  inches.  There  shall  be  no  circular  or  winding 
stairways.  The  total  width  of  the  stairways  shall  not  be  less  than  8 
feet  in  the  clear  where  the  gallery  accommodated  150  people;  for  every 
50  people  less  than  150,  accommodated  by  the  gallery,  said  width  may 
be  reduced  1  foot.  Stairways  shall  be  constructed  of  fireproof  material, 
and  such  material  and  the  bearing  capacity  of  such  stairways  shall  be 
approved  by  the  bureau  of  buildings. 

4.  Gradients.  To  overcome  any  difference  of  level  between  corri- 
dors, lobbies  and  aisles  in  a  theatre,  gradients  of  not  over  1  foot  in 
10  feet,  or  steps  having  a  rise  not  over  8  inches  and  a  width  of  not  less 
than  10  inches  shall  be  used. 

5.  Walls.  If  the  walls  of  the  theatre  contain  wooden  studs  they  shall 
be  covered  either  with  expanded  metal  lath  or  wire  mesh  and  plastered 
with  three  coats  of  first-class  plaster,  or  with  metal  on  ^-inch  plaster 
boards,  and  all  joints  shall  be  properly  filled  with  mortar. 

503.  Means  of  Egress.  1.  Aisles.  All  aisles  in  a  motion  picture 
theatre  or  in  a  gallery  thereof  must  be  at  least  3  feet  in  the  clear. 

2.  Chair  Space.  All  chairs  in  such  a  theatre,  except  those  contained 
in  the  boxes,  must  not  be  less  than  32  inches  from  back  to  back  and 
must  be  firmly  secured  to  the  floor ;  no  seat  shall  have  more  than  7  seats 
intervening  between  it  and  an  aisle,  and  the  space  occupied  by  each 
person  shall  be  separated  from  the  adjoining  space  by  means  of  an 
arm  or  other  suitable  device. 

3.  Exits.  A  building  to  be  erected  or  to  be  altered  for  use  as  a 
motion  picture  theatre  must  be  provided,  on  the  main  floor  thereof,  with 
at  least  2  separate  exits,  one  of  which  shall  be  in  the  front  and  the 
other  in  the  rear  of  the  structure  and  both  leading  to  unobstructed 
outlets  to  the  street.  Where  the  main  floor  of  the  theatre  accommodates 
more  than  300  people  there  shall  be  at  least  3  such  exits,  the  aggregate 
width  in  feet  of  which  shall  not  be  less  than  one-twentieth  of  the  num- 
ber of  persons  to  be  accommodated  therein.  No  exit  shall  be  less  than 
5  feet  in  width,  and  there  shall  be  a  main  exit,  not  less  than  10  feet  in 


244  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

total  width.  All  exit  doors  must  be  fireproof  and  made  to  open  out- 
wardly, and  foe  so  arranged  as  not  to  obstruct  the  required  width  of 
exit  or  court  when  opened.  All  doors  leading  to  fire  escapes  must  be 
not  less  than  40  inches  wide  in  the  clear,  and  shall  be  located  at  the 
opposite  side  or  end  of  the  gallery  from  other  exit  doors. 

4.  Exit  Passageway  to  Street.  In  any  such  building,  if  an  unob- 
structed exit  to  a  street  cannot  be  provided  at  the  rear  thereof  as  herein 
specified,  either  an  open  court  or  a  fireproof  passageway  or  corridor 
must  be  provided,  extending  from  the  rear  exit  to  the  street  front,  at 
least  4  feet  in  the  clear  for  theatres  accommodating  100  persons  or 
less ;  the  width  to  be  increased  8  inches  for  every  additional  100  persons 
to  be  accommodated.  Such  passageway  or  corridor  must  be  constructed 
of  fireproof  material  and  be  at  least  10  feet  high  in  the  clear.  The 
walls  forming  such  passageway  or  corridor  must  be  at  least  8  inches 
thick,  and  shall  be  constructed  of  brick  or  other  approved  fireproof 
material.  If  there  be  a  basement,  the  wall  on  the  auditorium  side 
should  either  run  1  foot  below  the  cellar  bottom,  or  may  be  carried  in 
the  cellar  on  iron  columns  and  girders  properly  fireproofed,  according 
to  paragraph  350  of  this  chapter.  The  ceiling  of  such  passageway  must 
be  constructed  as  required  by  paragraph  352  of  this  chapter.  If  unob- 
structed rear  exits  or  exits  to  a  street  are  provided,  they  must  be  of 
the  same  total  width  required  for  court,  passageway  or  corridor  above 
mentioned.  The  level  of  the  open  court  or  passageway  at  the  front  of 
the  building  shall  not  be  greater  than  1  step  above  the  level  of  the  side- 
walk, and  the  grade  shall  not  be  more  than  1  foot  in  10,  with  no  per- 
pendicular risers. 

5.  Fire  Escapes.  Galleries  must  also  be  provided  with  at  least  one 
line  of  fire  escapes,  leading  to  an  open  court,  fireproof  passage  or 
street  without  re-entering  the  same  or  any  other  building.  If  the  fire 
escape  leads  to  a  point  in  the  court  nearer  the  street  than  any  exit, 
there  must  be  a  width  of  not  less  than  4  feet  in  the  clear  between  the 
outer  edge  of  the  fire  escape  and  the  outer  wall  of  the  court.  All  fire 
escapes  must  have  balconies,  not  less  than  3  feet  4  inches  in  width  in 
the  clear,  and  not  less  than  4  feet  6  inches  long,  and  from  said  balconies 
there  shall  be  staircases  extending  to  the  ground  level,  with  a  rise  of 
not  over  7$i  inches  and  a  step  of  not  less  than  9l/2  inches,  and  the  width 
of  the  stairs  must  not  be  less  than  3  feet  4  inches. 

504.  Booth  for  Projecting-Machine  and  Films.  Apparatus  for  pro- 
jecting motion  pictures  shall  be  contained  in  a  fireproof  booth  or  in- 
closure  constructed  as  required  by  law.  The  booth  in  which  the  picture 
machine  is  operated  shall  be  provided  with  an  opening  in  its  roof,  or  in 
the  upper  part  of  its  side  walls  leading  to  the  outdoor  air,  and  with  a 
vent  flue,  which  shall  have  a  minimum  cross-sectional  area  of  50  square 
inches  and  shall  foe  fireproof.     When  the  booth  is  in  use,  there  shall  be  a 


APPENDIX  245 

constant  current  of  air  passing  outward  through  said  opening  or  vent 
flue,  at  the  rate  of  not  less  than  30  cubic  feet  per  minute.  The  re- 
quirements of  this  section  shall  apply  to  portable  booths  and  booths 
in  open-air  theatres,  as  well  as  to  motion  picture  theatres. 

505.  Application  to  Existing  Theatres.  All  the  provisions  of  this 
article  shall  apply  to  existing  places  of  entertainment  where  motion 
pictures  are  exhibited  under  common  show  licenses,  in  case  the  seating 
capacity  be  increased ;  and,  in  case  the  seating  capacity  be  not  increased, 
all  the  provisions  of  this  article  shall  apply,  except  the  provisions  of 
paragraphs  500,  501 ;  subdivisions  1,  3  and  5  of  paragraph  502  and  sub- 
divisions 3,  4  and  5  of  paragraph  503,  but  the  commissioner  of  licenses 
shall  have  power  in  his  discretion  to  enforce  the  provisions  of  sub- 
divisions 3  and  4  of  paragraph  503,  relating  to  exits  and  courts. 

An  existing  place  of  entertainment  seating  300  persons  or  less,  where 
motion  pictures  are  exhibited  in  conjunction  with  any  other  form  of 
entertainment,  must  comply,  before  a  reissuance  of  its  license,  with  the 
provisions  of  article  25  of  this  chapter,  relating  to  theatres  seating  more 
than  300  persons.  But,  if  such  existing  place  of  entertainment  shall 
discontinue  all  other  form  of  entertainment  except  the  exhibition  of 
motion  pictures,  it  may  be  licensed  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of 
first  paragraph  of  this  section. 

506.  O pen-Air  Motion  Picture  Theatres.  The  seating  capacity  of 
each  open-air  motion  picture  theatre,  as  defined  in  paragraph  30  of 
chapter  3  of  this  ordinance,  shall  be  such  as  shall  be  prescribed  by  the 
commissioner  of  licenses.  All  such  theatres  shall  conform  to  the  fol- 
lowing   requirements  : 

1.  Aisles.  The  number  and  width  of  all  aisles  shall  be  as  pre- 
scribed by  the  commissioner  of  licenses,  but  no  aisle  shall  be  less  than 
4  feet  wide; 

2.  Exits.  At  least  2  separate  exits,  remote  from  each  other,  shall 
be  provided,  and  no  exit  shall  be  less  than  5  feet  in  width ;  for  every 
25  persons  to  be  accommodated  in  excess  of  300,  the  total  width  of 
exits  shall  be  increased  1  foot.  All  exits  must  be  indicated  by  signs  and 
red  lights,   and  doors   must   open  outwardly; 

3.  Seats.  Seats  must  be  stationary,  with  backs  32  inches  apart,  and 
so  arranged  that  no  seat  shall  have  more  than  7  seats  intervening  be- 
tween it  and  an  aisle.  Chairs  must  be  either  securely  fastened  to  a 
wood  or  concrete  floor,  or  all  chairs  in  a  row  must  be  fastened  together, 
and  at  least  4  rows  must  be  securely  fastened  to  1  frame;  except  that, 
where  refreshments  are  served,  tables  and  unattached  chairs  or  benches 
used  with  them  may  be  permitted; 

4.  Floors.  The  floor  must  be  constructed  either  of  wood,  with 
sleepers,  or  concrete;  it  must  extend  at  least  5  feet  from  the  seats  on 


246  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

all  sides;  provided,  however,  that,  in  the  discretion  of  the  commis- 
sioner of  licenses,  a  gravel  floor  may  be  substituted  for  wood  or  con- 
crete. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  requirements,  the  provisions  of  sub- 
divisions 2  and  4  of  paragraph  502  and  paragraph  504  of  this  article 
shall  apply  to  all  open-air  motion  picture  theatres. 

ARTICLE  25. 

Theatres  and  Other  Places  of  Amusement. 

(In  Effect  March  30,  1915.) 

Section  520  Application  of  Article. 

521  Buildings  Must  be  Approved. 

522  Auditorium  Walls. 

523  Dressing  Rooms. 

524  Fire-extinguishing  Appliances. 

525  Heating  Plant. 

526  Lights. 

527  Means  of  Egress. 

528  Partitions  and  Walls. 

529  Proscenium  Construction. 

530  Protective  Curtain. 

531  Roof  of  Auditorium. 

532  Seats. 

533  Stage. 

534  Miscellaneous  Requirements. 

535  Storage  Rooms;  Workshops. 

536  Use  and  Occupancy. 

537  Jurisdiction  of  Fire  Comimissioner. 

538  Saving  Clause. 

520.  Application  of  Article.  Every  theatre  or  open  house  or  other 
building  intended  to  be  used  for  theatrical  or  operatic  purposes,  or  for 
public  entertainment  of  any  kind  hereafter  erected  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  more  than  300  persons,  shall  be  built  to  comply  with  the  require- 
ments of  this  article.  No  building  which,  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of 
this  ordinance  is  not  in  actual  use  for  theatrical  or  operatic  purposes, 
and  no  building  hereafter  erected  not  in  conformity  with  the  require- 
ments of  this  section,  shall  be  used  for  theatrical  or  operatic  purposes, 
or  for  public  entertainments  of  any  kind,  until  the  same  shall  have 
been  made  to  conform  to  the  requirements  of  this  article. 

521.  Buildings  Must  Be  Approved.  No  building  described  in  the 
preceding  section  of  this  article  shall  be  opened  to  the  public  for  the- 
atrical or  operatic  purposes,  or  for  public  entertainments  of  any  kind, 


APPENDIX  247 

until  the  fire  commissioner  and  the  superintendent  of  buildings  shall 
have  approved  the  same  in  writing  as  conforming  to  the  requirements 
of  this  article. 

522.  Auditorium  Walls.  Interior  walls  built  of  fireproofing.  ma- 
terials shall  separate  the  auditorium  from  the  entrance  vestibule,  and 
.from  any  room  or  rooms  over  the  same,  also  from  lobbies,  corridors, 
refreshment  or  other  rooms. 

523.  Dressing  Rooms.  Dressing  rooms  may  be  placed  in  the  fly 
galleries,  provided  that  proper  exits  are  secured  therefrom  to  the  fire 
escapes  in  the  open  courts,  and  that  the  partitions  and  other  matters 
pertaining  to  dressing  rooms  shall  conform  to  the  requirements  herein 
contained,  but  the  stairs  leading  to  the  same  shall  be  fireproof.  All 
dressing  rooms  shall  have  an  independent  exit  leading  directly  into  a 
court  or  street,  and  shall  be  ventilated  by  windows  in  the  external 
walls;  and  no  dressing  room  shall  be  below  the  street  level.  All  win- 
dows shall  be  arranged  to  open,  and  none  of  the  windows  in  outside 
walls  shall  have  fixed  sashes,  iron  grills  or  bars. 

524.  Fire-Extinguishing  Appliances.  In  every  building  described 
in  paragraph  520  of  this  article  there  shall  be  provided: 

1\  Hose.  A  proper  and  sufficient  quantity  of  2^-inch  hose,  not 
less  than  100  feet  in  length,  fitted  with  the  regulation  couplings  of  the 
fire  department  and  with  nozzles  attached  thereto,  and  with  hose  span- 
ners at  each  outlet,  shall  always  be  kept  attached  to  each  hose  attach- 
ment as  the  fire  commissioner  may  direct. 

2.  Sprinkler  System.  A  separate  and  distinct  system  of  automatic 
sprinklers,  with  fusible  plugs,  approved  by  the  superintendet  of  buildings, 
supplied  with  water  from  a  tank  located  on  the  roof  over  the  stage  and 
not  connected  in  any  manner  with  the  stand  pipes,  shall  be  placed  at 
each  side  of  the  proscenium  opening  and  on  the  ceiling  or  roof  over 
the  stage  at  such  intervals  as  will  protect  every  square  foot  of  stage 
surface  when  said  sprinklers  are  in  operation.  Automatic  sprinklers 
shall  also  be  placed,  wherever  practicable,  in  the  dressing  rooms  under 
the  stage  and  in  the  carpenter  shop,  paint  rooms,  store  rooms  and 
property  room. 

3.  Standpipes.  Standpipes  4  inches  in  diameter  shall  be  provided 
with  hose  attachments  on  every  floor  and  gallery  as  follows,  namely: 
One  on  each  side  of  the  auditorium  in  each  tier,  also  on  each  side  of 
the  stage  in  each  tier,  and  at  least  one  in  the  property  room  and  one 
in  the  carpenter's  shop,  if  the  same  be  contiguous  to  the  building.  All 
such  standpipes  shall  be  kept  clear  from  obstruction.  Said  standpipes 
shall  be  separate  and  distinct,  receiving  their  supply  of  water  direct 
from  the  power  pump  or  pumps,  and  shall  be  fitted  with  the  regulation 


248  MODERN   THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

couplings  of  the  fire  department,  and  shall  be  kept  constantly  filled  with 
water  by  means  oi  an  automatic  power  pump  or  pumps,  of  sufficient 
capacity  to  supply  all  the  lines  of  hose  when  operated  simultaneously, 
and  said  pump  or  pumps  shall  be  supplied  from  the  street  main  and 
be  ready  for  immediate  use  at  all  times  during  any  performance  in 
said  building.  In  addition  to  the  requirements  contained  in  this  sec- 
tion, the  standpipes  shall  also  conform  to  the  requirements  contained 
in  paragraph  581   of  this  chapter. 

4.  Miscellaneous.  There  shall  also  be  kept  in  readiness  for  imme- 
diate use  on  the  stage,  at  least  4  casks  full  of  water,  and  2  (buckets 
to  each  cask.  Said  casks  and  buckets  shall  be  painted  red.  There  shall 
also  be  provided  hand  pumps  or  other  portable  fire-extinguishing  ap- 
paratus and  at  least '4  axes  and  two  25-foot  hooks,  two  15-foot  hooks, 
and  two  10-foot  hooks  on  each  tier  or  floor  of  the  stage. 

525.  Heating  Plant.  Every  steam  boiler  which  may  be  required  for 
heating  or  other  purposes  shall  be  located  outside  of  the  building.  The 
space  allotted  to  the  same  shall  be  inclosed  by  walls  of  masonry  on  all 
sides,  and  the  ceiling  of  such  space  shall  be  constructed  of  fireproof 
materials.  All  doorways  in  the  walls  of  boiler-rooms  shall  have  fire- 
proof doors.  No  floor  register  for  heating  shall  be  permitted.  No 
coil  or  radiator  shall  be  placed  in  any  aisle  or  passageway  used  as  an 
exit,  but  all  said  coils  and  radiators  shall  be  placed  in  recesses  formed 
in  the  wall  or  partition  to  receive  the  same.  All  supply  return  or 
exhaust  pipes  shall  be  properly  incased  and  protected  where  passing 
through   floors  or  near  woodwork. 

526.  Lights.  1.  Adequacy.  Every  portion  of  the  building  devoted 
to  the  uses  or  accommodation  of  the  public,  also  all  outlets  leading  to 
the  streets  and  including  the  open  courts  or  corridors,  shall  be  well 
and  properly  lighted  during  every  performance,  and  the  same  shall 
remain  lighted  until  the  entire  audience  has  left  the  premises.  When 
interior  gas  lights  are  not  lighted  by  electricity,  other  suitable  appliances, 
to  be  approved  by  the  superintendent  of  buildings,  shall  be  provided. 

2.  Corridors  and  Passageways.  All  gas  or  electric  lights  in  the  halls, 
corridors,  lobby  or  any  other  part  of  said  buildings  used  by  the  audience, 
except  the  auditorium,  must  be  controlled  by  a  separate  shut-off,  lo- 
cated in  the  lobby  and  controlled  only  in  that   particular  place. 

3.  Fireproofing.  No  gas  or  electric  light  shall  be  inserted  in  the 
walls,  woodwork,  ceilings,  or  in  any  part  of.  the  buildings,  unless  pro- 
tected by  fireproof  materials. 

4.  Gas  connections.  Gas  mains  supplying  the  building  shall  have 
independent  connections  for  the  auditorium  and  the  stage,  and  pro- 
vision shall  be  made  for  shutting  off  the  gas  from  the  outside  of  the 
building. 


APPENDIX  249 

5.  Nettings.  All  suspended  or  bracket  lights  surrounded  by  glass 
in  the  auditorium,  or  in  any  part  of  the  building  devoted  to  the  public 
shall  be  provided  with  proper  wire  netting  underneath.  All  lights  in 
passages  and  corridors  in  said  buildings,  wherever  deemed  necessary 
by  the  superintendent  of  buildings,  shall  be  protected  with  proper  wire 
network. 

6.  Stage  Lights.  All  stage  lights  shall  have  strong  metal  wire 
guards  or  screens,  not  less  than  10  inches  in  diameter,  so  constructed 
that  any  material  in  contact  therewith  shall  be  out  of  reach  of  the 
flames  of  said  stage  lights,  and  must  be  soldered  to  the  fixture  in  all 
cases.  The  footlights,  in  addition  to  the  wire  network,  shall  be  pro- 
tected with  a  strong  wire  guard  and  chain,  placed  not  less  than  2  feet 
distant  from  said  footlights,  and  the  trough  containing  them  shall  be 
formed  of  and  surrounded  by  fireproof  materials.  All  border  lights 
shall  be  constructed  according  to  the  best  known  methods,  subject  to 
the  approval  of  the  superintendent  of  buildings,  and  shall  be  suspended 
for  10  feet  by  wire  rope. 

7.  Ventilators.  All  ducts  or  shafts  used  for  conducting  heated  air 
from  the  main  chandelier,  or  from  any  other  light  or  lights,  shall  be 
constructed  of  metal  and  made  double,  with  an  air  space  between. 

527.  Means  of  Egress.  1.  Exits  to  Streets.  Every  theatre  accom- 
modating 300  persons  shall  have  at  least  2  exits;  when  accommodating 
500  persons,  at  least  3  such  exits  shall  be  provided;  these  exits  not 
referring  to  or  including  the  exits  to  the  open  court  at  the  side  of  the 
theatre.  Every  such  •  building  shall  have  at  least  one  front  on  the 
street,  and  in  such  front  there  shall  be  suitable  means  of  entrance  and 
exit  for  the  audience,  not  less  than  25  feet  in  width.  The  entrance 
of  the  main  front  of  the  building  shall  be  not  on  a  higher  level  from 
the  sidewalk  than  4  steps,  unless  approved  by  the  superintendent  of 
buildings.  Each  exit  shall  be  at  least  5  feet  in  width  in  the  clear  and 
provided  with  doors  of  iron  or  wood;  if  of  wood,  the  doors  shall  be 
constructed  as  hereinbefore  prescribed  in  this  chapter.  All  of  said 
doors  shall  open  outwardly,  and  shall  be  fastened  with  movable  bolts, 
the  bolts  to  be  kept  drawn  during  performances. 

2.  Exits  to  Courts.  In  addition  to  the  aforesaid  entrances  and 
exits  on  the  street,  there  shall  be  reserved  for  service  in  case  of  an 
emergency  an  open  court  or  space  in  the  rear  and  on  the  side  not 
bordering  on  the  street,  where  said  building  is  located  on  a  corner  lot ; 
and  in  the  rear  and  on  both  sides  of  said  building,  where  there  is  but 
one  frontage  on  the  street  as  hereinafter  provided.  The  width  of  such 
open  court  or  courts  shall  be  not  less  than  10  feet  where  the  seating 
capacity  is  not  over  1,000  people,  above  1,000  and  not  more  than  1,800 
people  12  feet  in  width,  and  above  1,800  people  14  feet  width.  Said 
open   court   or  courts   shall   extend   the    full   length   and   height   of   the 


250  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

building  and  across  on  each  side  and  rear  thereof  where  its  sides  or 
side  does  not  abut  on  a  street  or  alley,  and  shall  be  of  the  same  width 
at  all  points,  and  exits  hereafter  specified  shall  lead  into  such  open 
courts.  From  the  auditorium  opening  into  the  said  open  courts  or 
on  the  side  street,  there  shall  be  not  less  than  2  exits  on  each  side  in 
each  tier  from  and  including  the  parquet  and  each  gallery.  The  said 
open  courts  and  corridors  shall  not  be  used  for  storage  purposes,  or 
for  any  purposes  whatsoever,  except  for  exit  and  entrance  from  and 
to  the  auditorium  and  stage,  and  must  be  kept  free  and  clear  during 
performances. 

3.  Doorways  of  Exits.  Doorways  of  exit  or  entrance  for  the 
use  of  the  public  shall  be  not  less  than  5  feet  in  width,  and  for 
every  additional  100  persons  or  portions  thereof  to  be  accommo- 
dated in  excess  of  500,  an  aggregate  of  20  inches  additional  exit 
width  must  be  allowed.  All  doors  of  exit  or  entrance  shall  open  out- 
wardly and  be  hung  to  swing  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  become  an 
obstruction  in  a  passage  or  corridor,  and  no  such  doors  shall  be  closed 
and  locked  during  any  representation,  or  when  the  building  is  open  to 
the  public. 

4.  Foyers,  Lobbies  and  Corridors.  The  foyers,  lobbies,  corridors, 
passages  and  rooms  for  the  use  of  the  audience,  not  including  aisles 
spaced  between  seats,  shall  on  the  first  or  main  floor,  where  the  seating 
capacity  exceeds  500  or  more,  be  at  least  16  feet  clear,  back  of  the  last 
row  of  seats  and  on  each  balcony  or  gallery  at  least  12  feet  clear  of  the 
last  row  of  seats.  The  level  of  said  corridors  at  the  front  entrance  to 
the  building  shall  be  not  greater  than  one  step  above  the  level  of  the 
sidewalk  where  they  begin  at  the  street  entrance.  During  the  per- 
formance the  doors  or  gates  in  the  corridors  shall  be  kept  open  by 
proper  fastenings;  at  other  times  they  may  be 'closed  and  fastened  by 
movable  bolts  or  blocks. 

5.  Aisles.  All  aisles  on  the  respective  floors  of  the  auditorium  shall 
be  not  less  than  3  feet  wide  where  they  begin,  and  shall  be  increased 
in  width  toward  the  exits  in  a  ratio  oi  l]4  inches  to  5  running  feet. 

6.  Gradients.  Gradients  or  inclined  planes  shall  be  employed  in- 
stead of  steps  where  possible  to  overcome  slight  difference  of  level  in 
or  between  aisles,  corridors  and  passages.  To  overcome  any  difference 
of  level  in  and  between  courts,  corridors,  lobbies,  passages  and  aisles 
on  the  ground  floor,  gradients  shall  be  employed  of  not  over  1  foot  in 
12  feet,  with  no  perpendicular  rises. 

7.  Gallery  Exits.  Distinct  and  separate  places  of  exit  and  entrance 
shall  be  provided  for  each  gallery  above  the  first.  A  common  place  of 
exit  and  entrance  may  serve  for  the  main  floor  of  the  auditorium  and 
the  first  gallery,  provided  its  capacity  be  equal  to  the  aggregate  capac- 
ity of  the  outlets  from  the  main  floor  and  the  said  gallery.     No  passage 


APPENDIX  251 

leading  to  any  stairway  communicating  with  any  entrance  or  exit  shall 
be  less  than  4  feet  in  width  in  any  part  thereof.  From  the  auditorium 
opening  into  the  said  open  courts  or  on  the  side  street,  there  shall  be 
not  less  than  2  exits  on  each  side  in  each  tier  from  and  including  the 
parquet  and  each  and  every  gallery. 

8.  Staircase  to  Galleries.  Where  the  seating  capacity  is  for  more 
than  1,000  people,  there  shall  be  at  least  2  independent  staircases,  with 
direct  exterior  outlets,  provided  for  each  gallery  in  the  auditorium, 
where  there  are  not  more  than  2  galleries,  and  the  same  shall  be  lo- 
cated on  opposite  sides  of  said  galleries.  Where  there  are  more  than  2 
galleries,  1  or  more  additional  staircases  shall  be  provided;  the  outlets 
from  which  shall  communicate  directly  with  the  principal  exit  or  other 
exterior  outlets.  All  such  staircases  shall  be  of  width  proportionate 
to  the  seating  capacity  as  elsewhere  herein  prescribed.  Where  the  seat- 
ing capacity  is  for  1,000  people,  or  less,  2  direct  lines  of  staircase  only 
shall  be  required,  located  on  opposite  sides  of  the  galleries,  and  in 
both  cases  shall  extend  from  the  sidewalk  level  to  the  upper  gallery,  with 
outlets  from  each  gallery  to  each  of  said  staircases.  All  inside  stair- 
ways leading  to  the  upper  galleries  of  the  auditorium  shall  be  inclosed 
on  both  sides  with  walls  of  fireproof  materials.  Stairs  leading  to  the 
first  or  lower  gallery  may  be  left  open  on  one  side  in  which  case  they 
shall  be  constructed  as  herein  provided  for  similar  stairs  leading  from 
the  entrance  hall  to  the  main  floor  of  the  auditorium.  But  in  no  case 
shall  stairs  leading  to  any  gallery  be  left  open  on  both  sides.  No  door 
shall  be  open  immediately  upon  a  flight  of  stairs,  but  a  landing  at  least 
the  width  of  the  door  shall  be  provided  between  such  stairs  and  such 
door. 

9.  Stage  Staircases.  At  least  2  independent  staircases,  with  direct 
exterior  outlets,  shall  also  be  provided  for  the  service  of  the  stage  and 
shall  be  located  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  same. 

10.  Stairways.  All  staircases  for  the  use  of  the  audience  shall  be 
inclosed  with  walls  of  brick,  or  of  fireproof  materials  approved  by  the 
superintendent  of  buildings,  in  the  stories  through  which  they  pass,  and 
the  openings  to  said  staircases  from  each  tier  shall  be  of  the  full  width 
of  said  staircase.  All  stairs  within  the  building  shall  be  constructed  of 
fireproof  material  throughout.  Stairs  from  balconies  and  galleries  shall 
not  communicate  with  the  basement  or  cellar.  All  stairs  shall  have 
treads  of  uniform  width  and  risers  of  uniform  height  throughout. 
Stairs  from  balconies  and  galleries  shall  not  communicate  with  the 
basement  or  cellar.  All  stairs  shall  have  treads  of  uniform  width  and 
risers  of  uniform  height  throughout  in  each  flight.  Stairways  serving 
for  the  exit  of  50  people  shall  be  at  least  4  feet  wide  between  railings 
or  between  walls,  and  for  every  additional  50  people  to  be  accommodated 
6  inches  must  be  added  to  their  width.  The  width  of  all  stairs  shall  be 
measured    in    the    clear    between    hand    rails.      In    no    case    shall    the 


252  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

risers  of  any  stairs  exceed  7l/2  inches  in  height,  nor  shall  the  treads, 
exclusive  of  nosings,  be  less  than  10^  inches  wide  in  straight  stairs. 
No  circular  or  winding  stairs  for  the  use  of  the  public  shall  be  per- 
mitted. When  straight  return  directly  on  themselves,  a  landing  of  the 
full  width  of  both  flights,  without  any  steps,  shall  be  provided.  The 
outer  line  of  landings  shall  be  curved  to  a  radius  of  not  less  than  2  feet 
to  avoid  square  angles.  Stairs  turning  at  an  angle  shall  have  a  proper 
landing  without  winders  introduced  at  said  turn.  In  stairs,  when  2 
side  flights  connect  with  one  main  flight,  no  winders  shall  be  introduced, 
and  the  width  of  the  main  flight  shall  be  at  least  equal  to  the  aggregate 
width  of  the  side  flights.  All  stairs  shall  have  proper  landings  intro- 
duced at  convenient   distances. 

11.  Stairway  Hand  Rails.  All  inclosed  staircases  shall  have,  on 
both  sides,  strong  hand  rails  firmly  secured  to  the  wall  about  3  inches 
distant  therefrom  and  about  3  feet  above  the  stairs,  but  said  hand  rails 
shall  not  run  on  level  platforms  and  landings  where  the  same  is  more 
in  length  than  the  width  of  the  stairs.  All  staircases  8  feet  and  over  in 
width  shall  be  provided  with  a  centre  hand  rail  of  metal,  not  less  than 
2  inches  in  diameter  placed  at  a  height  of  about  3  feet  above  the  center 
of  the  treads,  and  supported  on  wrought  metal  or  brass  standards  of 
sufficient  strength,  placed  not  nearer  than  4  feet  nor  more  than  6  feet 
apart,  and  securely  bolted  to  the  treads  or  risers  of  stairs,  or  both,  and 
at  the  head  of  each  flight  of  stairs,  on  each  landing,  the  post  or  standard 
shall  be  at  least  6  feet  in  height,  to  which  the  rail  shall  be  secured. 

12.  Fire-escapes.  There  shall  be  balconies  not  less  than  6  feet  in 
width  in  the  said  open  court  or  courts  at  each  level  or  tier  above  the 
parquet,  on  each  side  of  the  auditorium,  of  sufficient  length  to  embrace 
the  2  exits,  and  from  said  balconies  there  shall  be  staircases  extending 
to  the  ground  level,  with  a  rise  of  not  over  &l/2  inches  to  a  step  and  not 
less  than  9  inches  tread,  exclusive  of  the  nosing.  '  The  staircase  from 
the  upper  balcony  to  the  next  below  shall  be  not  less  than  48  inches  in 
width  clear,  and  .from  the  first  balcony  to  the  ground  4  feet  in  width 
in  the  clear  where  the  seating  capacity  of  the  auditorium  is  for  1,000 
people  or  less,  4  feet  6  inches  in  the  clear  where  above  1,000  and  not 
more  than  1,800  people,  and  5  feet  in  the  clear  where  above  1,800  people 
and  not  more  than  2,500  people,  and  not  over  5  feet  6  inches  in  the 
clear  where  above  2,500  people.  All  the  before-mentioned  balconies  and 
staircases  shall  be  constructed  of  iron  throughout,  including  the  floors, 
and  of  ample  strength  to  sustain  the  load  to  be  carried  by  them,  and 
they  shall  be  covered  with  a  metal  hood  or  awning,  to  be  constructed 
in  such  manner  as  shall  be  approved  by  the  superintendent  of  buildings. 
Where  one  side  of  the  building  borders  on  the  street,  there  shall  be 
balconies  and  staircases  of  like  capacity  and  kind,  as  before  mentioned, 
carried  to  the  ground. 


APPENDIX  253 

13.  Diagram  of  Exits.  A  diagram  or  plan  of  each  tier,  gallery  or 
floor,  showing  distinctly  the  exits  therefrom,  each  occupying  a  space 
not  less  than  15  square  inches,  shall  be  printed  in  black  lines  in  a  legible 
manner  on  the  programme  of  the  performance.  Every  exit  shall  have 
over  the  same  on  the  inside  the  word  "Exit"  painted  in  legible  letters 
not  less  than  8  inches  high. 

528.  Partitions  and  Walls.  The  partitions  in  that  portion  of  the 
building  which  contains  the  auditorium,  the  entrance  and  vestibule,  and 
every  room  and  passage  devoted  to  the  use  of  the  audience  shall  be 
constructed  of  fireproof  materials  including  the  furring  of  outside  or 
other  walls.  The  wall  separating  the  actors'  dressing  rooms  from  the 
stage  and  the  partitions  dividing  the  dressing  rooms,  together  with  the 
partitions  of  every  passageway  from  the  same  to  the  stage,  and  all  other 
partitions  on  or  about  the  stage,  shall  be  constructed  of  fireproof  ma- 
terial approved  by  the  superintendent  of  buildings.  All  doors  in  any 
of  said  partitions  shall  be  fireproof. 

529.  Proscenium  Construction.  A  fire  wall,  built  of  brick  shall 
separate  the  auditorium  from  the  stage.  The  same  shall  extend  at  least 
4  feet  above  the  stage  roof,  or  the  auditorium  roof,  if  the  latter  be  the 
higher,  and  shall  be  coped.  Above  the  proscenium  opening  there  shall 
be  an  iron  girder  of  sufficient  strength  to  safely  support  the  load  above, 
and  the  same  shall  be  covered  with  fireproof  materials  to  protect  it 
from  the  heat.  Should  there  be  constructed  an  orchestra  over  the  stage, 
above  the  proscenium  opening,  the  said  orchestra  shall  be  placed  on  the 
auditorium  side  of  the  proscenium  fire,  wall,  and  shall  be  entered  only 
from  the  auditorium  side  of  said  wall.  The  molded  frame  around  the 
proscenium  opening  shall  be  formed  entirely  of  fireproof  materials; 
if  metal  be  used,  the  metal  shall  be  filled  in  solid  with  non-combustible 
material  and  securely  anchored  to  the  wall  with  iron.  No  doorway  or 
opening  through  the  proscenium  wall,  from  the  auditorium,  shall  be 
allowed  above  the  level  of  the  first  floor,  and  such  first  floor,  openings 
shall  have  fireproof  doors  on  each  face  of  the  wall,  and  the  doors  shall 
be  hung  so  as  to  be  opened  from  either  side  at  all  times. 

530.  Protective  Curtain.  The  proscenium  opening  shall  be  provided 
with  a  fireproof  metal  curtain,  or  a  curtain  of  asbestos  or  other  fire- 
proof material  approved  by  the  superintendent  of  buildings,  sliding  at 
each  end  with  iron  grooves,  securely  fastened  to  the  brick  wall  and  ex- 
tending into  such  grooves  to  a  depth  not  less  than  6  inches  on  each 
side  of  the  opening.  The  proscenium  curtains  shall  be  placed  at  least 
3  feet  distant  from  the  footlights,  at  the  nearest  point.  Said  fireproof 
curtain,  shall  be  raised  at  the  commencement  of  each  performance  and 
lowered  at  the  close  thereof,  and  be  operated  by  approved  machinery 
for  that  purpose. 


254  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

531.  Roof  of  Auditorium.  The  roof  over  the  auditorium  and  the 
entire  main  floor  of  the  auditorium  and  vestibule,  also  the  entire  floor 
of  the  second  story  of  the  front  superstructure  over  the  entrance,  lobby 
and  corridors,  and  all  galleries  and  support  for  the  same  in  the  audi- 
torium shall  be  constructed  of  iron  and  steel  and  fireproof  materials, 
not  excluding  the  use  of  wood  floor  boards  and  necessary  sleepers  to 
fasten  the  same  to,  but  such  sleepers  shall  not  mean  timbers  of  support, 
and  the  space  between  the  sleepers,  excepting  a  portion  under  the 
stepping  in  the  galleries,  which  shall  be  properly  fire-stopped,  shall  be 
solidly  filled  with  incombustible  material  up  to  under  side  of  the  floor 
boards. 

532.  Seats.  All  seats  in  the  auditorium,  excepting  those  contained 
in  boxes,  shall  be  not  less  than  32  inches  from  back  to  back,  measured 
in  a  horizontal  direction,  and  firmly  secured  to  the  floor.  No  seat  in 
the  auditorium  shall  have  more  than  6  seats  intervening  between  it  and 
an  aisle  on  either  side.  No  stool  or  seat  shall  be  placed  in  any  aisle. 
All  platforms  in  galleries  formed  to  receive  the  seats  shall  not  be  more 
than  21  inches  in  height  of  riser,  nor  less  than  32  inches  in  width  of 
platform. 

533.  Stage.  1.  Construction.  All  that  portion  of  the  stage  not 
comprised  in  the  working  of  scenery,  traps  and  other  mechanical  appa- 
ratus for  the  presentation  of  a  scene,  usually  equal  to  the  width  of  the 
proscenium  opening,  shall  be  built  of  iron  or  steel  beams  filled  in  be- 
tween with  fireproof  material,  and  all  girders  for  the  support  of  said 
beams  shall  be  of  wrought  iron  or  rolled  steel.  The  fly  galleries  entire, 
including  pin-rails,  shall  be  constructed  of  iron  or  steel,  and  the  floors 
of  said  galleries  shall  be  composed  of  iron  or  steel  beams,  filled  with 
fireproof  materials,  and  no  wood  boards  or  sleepers  shall  be  used  as 
covering  over  beams  but  the  said  floors  shall  be  entirely  fireproof.  The 
rigging  loft  shall  be  fireproof. 

2.  Skylights.  There  shall  be  provided  over  the  stage  metal  sky- 
lights of  an  area  or  combined  area  of  at  least  %  the  area  of  said 
stage,  fitted  up  with  sliding  sash  and  glazed  with  double  thick  sheet 
glass  not  exceeding  1-12  of  an  inch  thick,  and  each  pane  thereof  measur- 
ing not  less  than  300  square  inches  and  the  whole  of  which  skylight 
shall  be  so  constructed  as  to  open  instantly  on  the  cutting  or  burning  of 
a  hempen  cord,  which  shall  be  arranged  to  hold  said  skylights  closed,  or 
some  other  equally  simply  approved  device  for  opening  them  may  be 
provided.  Immediately  underneath  the  glass  of  said  skylights  there 
shall  be  wire  netting,  but  wire  glass  shall  not  be  used  in  lieu  of  this 
requirement. 

3.  Scenery  and  Fittings.  All  stage  scenery,  curtains  and  decorations 
made  of  combustible  material,  and  all  woodwork  on  or  about  the  stage, 
shall  be  painted  or  saturated  with   some  non-combustible   material   or 


APPENDIX  255 

otherwise  rendered  safe  against  fire,  and  thj  finishing  coats  of  paint 
applied  to  all  woodwork  through  the  entire  building  shall  be  of  such 
kind  as  will  resist  fire  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  superintendent  of  build- 
ings having  jurisdiction. 

534.  Miscellaneous  Requirements.  1.  Ceilings.  The  ceiling  under 
each  gallery  shall  be  entirely  formed  of  fireproof  materials.  The  ceiling 
of  the  auditorium  shall  be  formed  of  fireproof  materials. 

2.  Ceiling  Coverings.  None  of  the  walls  or  ceilings  shall  be  covered 
with  wood  sheathing,  canvas  or  any  combustible  material.  But  this 
shall  not  exclude  the  use  of  wood  wainscoting  to  a  height  not  to  exceed 
6  feet,  which  shall  be  filled  in  solid  between  the  wainscoting  and  the 
wall  with  fireproof  materials. 

3.  Fronts  of  Galleries.  The  fronts  of  each  gallery  shall  be  formed 
of  fireproof  materials,  except  the  capping,  which  may  be  made  of  wood. 

4.  Lathing.  All  lathing,  whenever  used,  shall  be  of  wire  or  other 
metal. 

5.  Shelving  and  Cupboards.  All  shelving  and  cupboards  in  each  and 
every  dressing  room,  property  room  or  other  storage  rooms,  shall  be 
constructed  of  metal,  slate  or  some  fireproof  material. 

535.  Storage  Rooms;  Workshops.  No  workshop,  storage  or  general 
property  room  shall  be  allowed  above  the  auditorium  or  stage,  or  under 
the  same  or  in  any  of  the  fly  galleries.  All  of  said  rooms  or  shops  may 
be  located  in  the  rearer  at  the  side  of  the  stage,  but  in  such  cases  they 
shall  be  separated  from  the  stage  by  a  brick  wall,  and  the  openings 
leading  into  said  portions  shall  have  fireproof  doors  on  each  side  of  the 
openings,  hung  to  iron  eyes  built  into  the  wall. 

536.  Use  and  Occupancy.  1.  Restrictions.  No  portion  of  any  build- 
ing hereafter  erected  or  altered,  used  or  intended  to  be  used  for 
theatrical  or  other  purposes  as  in  this  section  specified,  shall  be  occu- 
pied or  used  as  a  hotel,  boarding  or  lodging  house,  factory  workshop 
or  manufactory,  or  for  storage  purposes,  except  as  may  be  hereafter 
specially  provided  for.  This  restriction  relates  not  only  to  that  portion 
of  the  building  which  contains  the  auditorium  and  the  stage,  but  applies 
also  to  the  entire  structure  in  conjunction  therewith.  No  store  or 
room  contained  in  the  building,  or  the  offices,  stores  or  apartments 
adjoining,  as  aforesaid,  shall  be  let  or  used  for  carrying  on  any  business, 
dealing  in  articles  designated  as  specially  hazardous  in  the  classification 
of  the  New  York  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  or  for  manufacturing 
purposes.  No  lodging  accommodations  shall  be  allowed  in  any  part 
of  the  building  communicating  with  the  auditorium.  When  located  on 
a  corner  lot,  that  portion  of  the  premises  bordering  on  the  side  street 
and  not  required   for  the  uses  of  the  theatre   may,  if  such  portion  be 


256  MODERN   THEATRE  OBSTRUCTION 

not  more  than  25  feet  in  width,  be  used  for  offices,  stores  or  apartments, 
provided  the  walls  separating  this  portion  from  the  theatre  proper  are 
carried  up  solidly  to  and  through  the  roof,  and  that  a  fireproof  exit  is 
provided  for  the  theatre  on  each  tier,  equal  to  the  combined  width  of 
exits  opening  on  opposite  sides  in  each  tier,  communicating  with  bal- 
conies and  staircases  leading  to  the  street  in  manner  provided  else- 
where in  this  section;  said  exit  passages  shall  be  entirely  cut  off  by 
brick  walls  from  said  offices,  stores  or  apartments,  and  the  floors  and 
ceilings  in  each  tier  shall  be  fireproof. 

2.  Above  Theatre.  Nothing  herein  contained  shall  prevent  a  roof 
garden,  art  gallery  or  rooms  for  similar  purposes  being  placed  above  a 
theatre  or  public  building,  provided  the  floor  of  the  same,  forming  the 
roof  over  such  theatre  or  building,  shall  be  constructed  of  iron  or  steel 
and  fireproof  materials,  and  that  said  floor  shall  have  no  covering 
boards  or  sleepers  of  wood,  but  shall  be  of  tile  or  cement.  Every  roof 
over  said  garden  or  rooms  shall  have  all  supports  and  rafters  of  iron 
or  steel,  and  be  covered  with  glass  or  fireproof  materials,  or  both,  but 
no  such  roof  garden,  art  gallery  or  room  for  any  public  purposes  shall 
be  placed  over  or  above  that  portion  of  any  theatre  or  other  building 
which  is  used  as  a  stage. 

537.  Jurisdiction  of  Pire  Commissioner.  The  stand  pipes,  gas  pipes, 
electric  wires,  hose,  footlights  and  all  apparatus  for  the  extinguishing 
of  fire  or  guarding  against  the  same,  as  in  this  article  specified,  shall 
be  in  charge  and  under  control  of  the  fire  department,  and  the  fire 
commissioner  is  hereby  directed  to  see  that  the  provisions  of  this  article 
relating  thereto   are  carried  out  and  enforced. 

538.  Saving  Clause.  The  provisions  of  the  foregoing  article  shall 
not  be  construed  to  mean  or  made  to  apply  to  any  theatre,  opera  house 
or  building  intended  to  be  used  for  theatrical  or  operatic  purposes, 
lawfully  erected  prior  to  June  3,  1904. 


CITY  OF  BOSTON. 

THEATRES. 

Definition. 

Sect.  77.  Every  building  hereafter  erected  so  as  to  contain  an  audi- 
ence hall  and  a  stage,  with  curtain,  movable  or  shifting  scenery  and 
machinery,  adapted  for  the  giving  of  plays,  operas,  spectacles  or  similar 
forms  of  entertainment,  and  of  a  size  to  provide  seats  for  more  than 
500  spectators  shall  be  a  theatre  within  the  meaning  of  this  act.  No 
existing  building  not  now  used  as  a  theatre  shall  be  altered  and  used 
as  a  theatre,  unless  it  conforms  to  the  provisions  of  this  act  for  a  new 
theatre. 

Construction. 

Sect.  78.  Every  theatre  hereafter  built  shall  be  of  fireproof  con- 
struction throughout,  except  that  the  floor  boards  may  be  of  wood,  and 
the  steel  work  of  the  stage,  of  the  fly  galleries,  and  of  the  rigging  loft 
need  not  be  fireproofed. 

Open   Courts. 

Sect.  79.  Every  theatre  built  in  a  block  not  on  a  corner  shall  have 
an  open  court  or  passageway  on  both  sides  extending  from  the  pros- 
cenium line  to  the  line  of  the  street  on  the  front,  or,  in  case  the  building 
abuts  on  a  street  both  in  front  and  rear,  these  passages  may  extend  from 
the  line  of  the  front  of  the  auditorium  to  the  line  of  the  rear  street. 
These  passages  shall  be  at  least  6  feet  wide  throughout  their  length, 
and  shall  not  be  closed  by  any  locked  gate  or  doorway.  They  shall  im- 
mediately adjoin  the  auditorium,  or  a  side  passage  or  lobby  directly 
connected  therewith.  These  passages  shall  be  open  to  the  sky  opposite 
the  whole  depth  of  the  auditorium,  but  may  be  carried  out  to  the  street 
front  or  rear  through  passages  inclosed  by  brick  walls  or  other  fireproof 
material  equally  efficient,  and  covered  by  a  solid  brick  vault  at  least 
8  inches  thick,  each  passage  to  be  not  less  than  8  feet  wide  and  10  feet 
high  throughout. 

Sect.  80.  Every  theatre  built  upon  the  corner  of  two  streets  shall 
have  one  inner  court  on  the  side  of  the  building  away  from  the  side 
street,  such  court  to  be  of  the  same  description  as  the  courts  provided 
for  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 

Stores,  Etc. 
Sect.  81.  Nothing  in  this  act  shall  be  construed  to  prohibit  the  use 
of  any  part  of  a  theatre  building  for  stores,  offices,  or  for  habitation, 
provided  that  the  parts  so  used  shall  be  built  with  exits  to  the  street 
entirely  distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  building  and  shall  be  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  building  by  solid  partitions  or  walls,  without  any 
openings  in  the  same. 

257 


258  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

Floor  Levels. 
Sect.  82.     In  all  theatres,  the  entrances  shall  be  not  more  than  one 
step  above  the  level  of  the  sidewalk  of  the  main  street,  and  the  stage 
shall  be  not  more  than  5  feet  above  the  said  level. 

Proscenium  Wall. 

Sect.  S3.  The  stage  of  every  theatre  shall  be  separated  from  the 
auditorium  by  a  wall  of  fireproof  construction,  which  wall  shall  extend 
the  whole  width  of  the  auditorium  and  the  whole  height  to  the  roof  of 
the  portion  occupied  by  the  stage.  There  shall  be  no  openings  through 
this  wall  except  the  curtain  opening,  one  doorway  each  side  behind  the 
boxes,  and  one  doorway  which  shall  be  located  at  or  below  the  level  of 
the  stage.  The  doorways  shall  not  exceed  twenty-one  superficial  feet 
each,  and  shall  have  standard  fire-doors  hung  in  a  manner  satisfactory 
to  the  commissioner.  The  finish  or  decorative  features  around  the 
curtain  opening  of  every  theatre  shall  be  of  fireproof  material. 

Curtain. 

Sect.  84.  The  proscenium  or  curtain  opening  of  every  theatre  shall 
have  a  fire-resisting  curtain  reinforced  by  wire  netting  or  otherwise 
strengthened.  If  of  iron,  or  similar  heavy  material,  and  made  to  lower 
from  the  top,  it  shall  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  stopped  securely  at  a 
height  of  seven  feet  above  the  stage  floor,  the  remaining  opening  being 
closed  by  a  curtain  or  valance  of  fire-resisting  fabric. 

Stage  Floor. 

Sect.  85.  The  part  of  the  stage  floor,  usually  equal  to  the  width  of 
the  proscenium  opening,  used  in  working  scenery,  traps  or  other  me- 
chanical apparatus,  may  be  of  wood,  and  no  flooring  used  thereon  shall 
be  less  than  V/%  inch  in  thickness. 

Ventilators. 

Sect.  86.  There  shall  be  one  or  more  ventilators  near  the  center  and 
above  the  highest  part  of  the  stage  of  every  theatre,  of  a  combined  area 
of  opening  satisfactory  to  the  commissioner,  and  not  less  than  1-10  of 
the  area  of  the  undivided  floor  space  behind  the  curtain  at  the  stage 
floor  level.  The  openings  in  every  such  ventilator  shall  be  closed  by 
valves  or  louvres  so  counterbalanced  as  to  open  automatically,  which 
shall  be  kept  closed,  when  not  in  use,  by  a  fusible  link  and  cord  reach- 
ing to  the  prompter's  desk,  and  readily  operated  therefrom.  Such 
cord  shall  be  of  combustible  material,  and  so  arranged  that  if  it  is 
severed  the  ventilator  will  open  automatically. 

Skylight  coverings  for  ventilators  shall  have  sheet  metal  frames  set 
with  double-thick  glass,  each  pane  thereof  measuring  not  less  than 
300  square  inches,  or  shall  be  protected  with  wire  glass.  If  wire  glass 
is  not  used,  a  suitable  wire  netting  shall  be  placed  immediately  be- 
neath the  glass,  but   above  the   ventilator   openings.     Illuminating   fix- 


APPENDIX  259 

tures  over  the  auditorium  shall  be  suspended  and  secured  in  a  manner 
approved  by  the  commissioner. 

Glass  on  illuminating  fixtures  over  the  auditorium  shall  be  secured 
from  danger  of  falling  as  the  commissioner  shall  require,  but  in 
no  case  shall  any  glass  more  than  6  inches  in  diameter  or  length  be 
hung  over  the  auditorium  unless  protected  from  falling  by  a  wire 
netting  or  similar  device  satisfactory  to  the  commissioner. 
Seats  in  Auditorium. 

Sect.  87.  All  seats  in  the  auditorium  excepting  those  contained  in 
boxes  shall  be  spaced  not  less  than  30  inches  from  back  to  back, 
measured  in  a  horizontal  direction,  and  shall  be  firmly  secured  to  the 
floor.  No  seat  in  the  auditorium  shall  have  more  than  six  seats  inter- 
vening between  it  and  an  aisle,  on  either  side. 

The  platforms  for  seats  in  balconies  and  galleries  shall  nowhere 
have  a  greater  rise  than  21  inches,  nor  be  less  than  30  inches  from 
back  to  back. 

Aisles. 

Sect.  88.  All  aisles  on  the  respective  floors  in  the  auditorium,  hav- 
ing seats  on  both  sides  of  the  same,  shall  be  not  less  than  30  inches 
wide  where  they  begin  and  shall  be  increased  in  width  toward  the  exits 
in  the  ratio  of  1  inch  to  5  running  feet.  Aisles  having  seats  on  one 
side  only  shall  be  not  less  than  2  feet  wide  at  their  beginning  and  shall 
increase  in  width,  the  same  as  aisles  having  seats  on  both  sides. 

Changes  in  Level. 
Sect.  89.  All  changes  in  the  levels  of  the  floors  of  such  buildings, 
except  under  stairways,  from  story  to  story  and  except  the  necessary 
steps  in  galleries  and  balconies  rising  toward  the  exits,  shall  be  made 
by  inclines  of  no  steeper  gradient  than  two  in  ten  within  the  auditorium, 
and  rising  toward  the  exits,  and  one  in  ten  for  all  others. 

Lobbies. 
Sect.  90.  Preceding  each  division  of  the  theatre  there  shall  be 
foyers,  lobbies,  corridors,  or  passages,  the  aggregate  capacity  of  which 
on  each  floor  or  gallery  shall  be  sufficient  to  contain  the  whole  number 
to  be  accommodated  on  such  floor  or  gallery  in  the  ratio  of  1  square 
foot  of  floor  room  for  each  person. 

Stage    Doors. 
Sect.  91.     There  shall  be  not  less  than  two  exit  doors,  each  not  less 
than  3  feet  in  width,  located  on  opposite  sides  of  the  stage,  and  opening 
directly  upon   a   street,   alley,   court,   or   courtway   leading   to   a   public 
thoroughfare. 

Room    Exits. 
Sect.  92.     All   rooms   in  theatres    for  the   use   of   persons   employed 
therein  shall  have  passages  to  at  least  2  independent  means  of  exit. 


260  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

Doors  to  Open  Outward. 

Sect.  93.  All  doors  of  exit  or  entrance  shall  open  outward,  and 
shall  be  hung  so  as  to  swing  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  become  an 
obstruction  in  a  passage  or  corridor,  and  no  such  doors  shall  be 
fastened  so  as  to  be  inoperative  when  the  building  is  occupied  by  an 
audience. 

False  Doors. 

Sect.  94.  No  mirrors  shall  be  so  placed  as  to  give  the  appearance 
of  a  doorway  or  exit,  hallway,  or  corridor,  nor  shall  there  be  any  false 
doors  or  windows. 

Main  Floor  and   First  Gallery  Exits. 

Sect.  95.  A  common  exit  may  serve  for  the  main  floor  of  the  audi- 
torium and  the  first  gallery,  provided  that  its  capacity  be  equal  to 
the  aggregate  capacity  of  the  outlets  from  the  main  floor  and  the  said 
gallery;  and  provided  that  the  lowermost  run  of  any  exit  leading  from 
a  gallery  shall  not  open  directly  at  right  angles  with  the  central  axis 
of  a  common  exit  unless  there  is  a  clear  space  or  landing  of  at  least 
1*4  times  the  width  of  the  exit  between  the  foot  of  such  exit  and 
such  center  line  or  nearest  exit  doorway. 

Exits. 

Sect.  96.  Two  distinct  and  separate  exits  shall  be  provided  for 
each  gallery  and  balcony  above  the  main  floor ;  and  the  same  be  lo- 
cated on  opposite  sides  of  the  galleries. 

All  gallery  or  balcony  exits  shall  start  with  a  width  of  not  less 
than  4  feet  at  the  uppermost  gallery. 

Exits  from  balconies  and  galleries  shall  not  communicate  with  the 
basement  or  cellar. 

Aggregate  Width  of  Exits. 

Sect.  97.  The  aggregate  width  of  all  the  exits  previously  described 
shall  be  estimated  on  a  basis  of  not  less  than  20  inches  for  every  100 
persons  for  whom  seats  are  provided  in  the  sections  of  the  auditorium 
served  by  the  respective  exits. 

Emergency  Exits. 

Sect.  98.  In  addition  to  the  exits  previously  described  there  shall 
be  one  exit  from  each  side  of  each  gallery,  balcony,  and  main  floor. of 
auditorium,  at  least  5  feet  wide,  leading  to  exterior  balconies  not  less 
than  4  feet  wide  and  20  feet  long  on  each  side  of  the  auditorium. 
From  such  balconies  there  shall  be  staircases  extending  to  the  ground 
level,  which  may  be  counterweighted,  with  risers  of  not  over  8^4  inches 
and  treads  of  not  less  than  9^2  inches,  exclusive  of  nosing.  The 
aggregate  width  of  these  emergency  stairs  shall  be  not  less  than  10  inches 
for  every  100  people  served  thereby,  no  single  stairs  being  less  than 
30  inches  wide.  Tf  counterweighted,  these  stairs  shall  be  lowered  dur- 
ing all  performances. 


APPENDIX  261 

Where  all  such  stairs  are  in  an  interior  court,  each  run  shall  be 
covered  by  a  light  awning  of  iron. 

Nothing  herein  shall  prohibit  the  building  of  emergency  stairs  and 
exits  inside  the  walls  of  the  building,  provided  that  they  are  surrounded 
by  a  fireproof  partition  not  less  than  4  inches  thick  separating  the  exits 
and  stairways  from  the  audience  room  or  auditorium. 

Additional    Requirements. 

Sect.  99.  The  commissioner  shall  have  power  to  require  a  greater 
number   or   capacity  of   exits   than    is   herein   prescribed. 

In  every  theatre  there  shall  be  over  every  exit,  on  the  inside,  and 
over  every  opening  to  a  fire  escape,  on  the  inside,  an  illuminated  sign, 
bearing  the  word  "exit"  or  "fire  escape,"  respectively,  in  letters  not 
less  than  4  inches  high.  The  lights  for  the  exit  signs,  passages,  stairs, 
lobbies,  auditoriums,  rear  of  auditoriums,  balconies,  galleries,  and  for 
the  balconies  and  stairs  outside  the  building,  shall  be  so  arranged  that 
they  can  be  turned  on  or  off  independently  of  the  means  provided  on 
the  stage  or  in  any  part  of  the  building  in  the  rear  of  the  proscenium 
wall.  Every  exit  sign  shall  be  kept  illuminated,  and  every  outside 
balcony  and  fire  escape  shall  be  kept  well  lighted  during  the  perform- 
ance, except  outside  exits  during  a  performance  before  sunset. 

Plans  showing  the  exits  and  stairways  shall*  be  legibly  printed  so 
as  to  occupy  a  full  page  of  every  programme  or  play-bill. 

In  said  buildings  there  shall  be  such  number  of  gas  pipe  outlets  as 
the  commissioner  may  require,  fitted  with  no  less  than  two  gas  burn- 
ers. Such  burners  shall  be  inspected  and  tried  at  least  once  in  every 
three  months  by  inspectors  of  the  department,  to  ascertain  if  they  are 
in  proper  working  order.  The  inspector  shall  make  a  report  of  each 
visit,  stating  the  condition  of  the  burners  and  the  action  of  the  in- 
spector  in  regard  to  them. 

The  commissioner  shall  have  authority  to  order  any  defect  in  the 
working  of  such  burners  as  are  necessary  for  public  safety  to  be 
remedied. 

So  much  of  this  section  as  applies  to  the  inspection  of  gas  burners 
shall  appy  to  buildings  now  used  as  theatres. 

Stairs. 
Sect.  100.      The    cut    of    the    stair    stringers    shall    not    exceed    7^£ 
inches   rise,   nor  be   less  than    1054   inches  tread.      There   shall  be   no 
flights    of    stairs    of    more   than    15    or   less   than    three    steps    between 
landings. 

Landings  of  Stairs. 
Sect.  101.    Every    landing    shall    be    at    least    4    feet    wide.     When 
straight    stairs    return    directly    on    themselves,    a    landing    of    the    full 
width  of  both  flights,  without  any  steps,  shall  be  provided.     The  outer 


262  MODERN   THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION' 

line  of  landings  shall  be  curved  to  a  radius  of  not  less  than  2  feet  to 
avoid  square  angles.  Stairs  turning  at  an  angle  shall  have  a  proper 
landing  without  winders  introduced  at  the  turn.  No  door  shall  open 
immediately  upon  a  flight  of  stairs,  but  a  landing  at  least  2  feet  wider 
than  the  width  of  the  door  opening  shall  be  provided  between  such 
stairs  and  such  door.  When  two  side  flights  connect  with  one  main 
flight,  no  winders  shall  be  introduced,  and  the  width  of  the  main  flight 
shall  be  at  least  equal  to  the  aggregate  width  of  the  side  flights. 

Hand-Rails. 

Sect.  102.  All  inclosed  stairways  shall  have,  on  both  sides,  strong- 
hand-rails,  firmly  secured  to  the  wall,  about  3  inches  distant  therefrom 
and  about  3  feet  high  above  the  stairs. 

All  stairways  8  feet  and  over  in  width  shall  be  provided  with  a 
central  rail  of  metal  or  hard  wood,  not  less  than  2  inches  in  diameter, 
placed  at  a  height  of  about  3  feet  above  the  centre  of  the  treads,  sup- 
ported on  wrought  metal  or  brass  standards  of  sufficient  strength, 
securely  bolted  to  the  treads  or  risers  of  the  stairs;  and  at  the  head  of 
each  flight  of  stairs,  and  on  each  side  of  the  landing,  the  post  or  stand- 
ards shall  be  at  least  6  feet  in  height,  and  the  rail  shall  be  secured  to 
the  post. 

Measurements  for  Width  of  Stairs. 

Sect.  103.  The  width  of  all  stairs  shall  be  measured  in  the  clear 
between  the  hand-rails. 

No  winding  or  circular  stairs  shall  be  permitted. 

Radiators   Forbidden  in   Passageways. 

Sect.  104.  No  coil  or  radiator  or  floor  register  shall  be  placed  in 
any  aisle  or  passageway  used  as  an  exit ;  but  all  such  coils  and  radia- 
tors may  be  placed  in  recesses  formed  in  the  wall  or  partition  to  re- 
ceive the  same. 

No  boiler,  furnace,  engine  or  heating  apparatus,  except  steam,  hot 
water  or  hot  air  pipes  or  radiators,  shall  be  located  under  the  audito- 
rium or  under  any  passage  or  stairway  or  exit  of  any  theatre. 

Sprinklers  and  Standpipes. 
There  shall  be  at  least  two  2-inch  high-service  standpipes  on  the 
stage  of  every  theatre,  with  ample  provision  of  hose  nozzles  at  each 
level  of  the  stage  on  each  side,  and  the  water  shall  be  kept  turned  on 
during  the  occupation  of  the  building  by  an  audience.  The  said  pipes 
shall  in  no  case  be  sealed,  and  shall  have  two  gates,  one  above  the 
other,  with  a  proper  test  or  waste  valve;  the  lower  gate  to  be  kept 
open  at  all  times.  The  proscenium  opening  of  every  theatre  shall  be 
provided  with  a  2J/2  inch  perforated  iron  pipe  or  equivalent  equipment 
of  automatic  or  open  sprinklers,  so  constructed  as  to  form,  when  in 
operation,   a   complete   water  curtain    for   the   whole  proscenium   open- 


APPENDIX  •       263 

ing,  and  there  shall  be  for  the  rest  of  the  stage  a  complete  system  of 
fire  apparatus  and  perforated  iron  pipes,  automatic  or  open  sprinklers. 
Such  pipes  or  sprinklers  shall  be  supplied  with  water  by  high  pressure 
service,  and  shall  be  at  all  times  ready  for  use. 

Places  of  Public  Assembly. 

Sect.  105.  Every  building  hereafter  erected  with  a  hall  or  assembly- 
room  to  contain  a  public  audience  of  more  than  800  persons,  or  with 
more  than  one  superimposed  gallery  or  balcony,  shall  be  of  fireproof 
construction  throughout;  except  that  halls  or  assembly-rooms,  the  mean 
level  of  the  main  floor  of  which  is  not  more  than  5  feet  above  the 
grade  of  the  adjacent  street,  may  have  roofs  of  second  class  con- 
struction. 

Every  building  hereafter  erected  with  a  hall  or  assembly-room  to 
contain  an  audience  of  more  than  600  persons,  the  main  floor  of  which 
is  raised  more  than  15  feet  above  the  level  of  the  principal  street  upon 
which  it  faces,  shall  be  of  fireproof  construction  throughout. 

The  capacity  of  a  hall  or  assembly-room  shall  be  estimated  on  the 
basis  of  6  square  feet  for  each  person. 

If  several  halls  or  assembly-rooms  are  provided  in  one  building, 
their  aggregate  capacity  shall  be  considered  as  determining  whether 
or  not  the  building  shall  be  of  fireproof  construction,  unless  the  several 
halls  are  inclosed  by  or  separated  from  each  other  by  fireproof  walls, 
with  fireproof  doors  in  the  same,  in  which  case  the  building  may  be  of 
second  class  construction. 

Xo  existing  building  shall  be  altered  to  contain  a  hall  or  assembly- 
room  exceeding  the  foregoing  dimensions,  unless  the  whole  building  as 
altered  shall  conform  to  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

All  seats  in  places  of  public  assemblage  shall  be  spaced  as  herein- 
before provided,  and,  while  such  places  of  public  assemblage  are  occu- 
pied by  an  audience,  shall  be  secured  in  such  manner  as  will  be  satis- 
factory to  the  building  commissioner  of  the  City  of  Boston.  No  tem- 
porary seats  or  other  obstructions  shall  be  allowed  in  any  aisle,  passage- 
way or  stairway  of  a  place  of  public  assemblage,  and  no  person  shall 
remain  in  any  aisle,  passageway  or  stairway  of  any  building  during  any 
performance. 

Every  existing  building  containing  a  hall  or  assembly-room  to  which 
admission  is  not  free,  and  to  which  the  provisions  of  chapter  494  of 
the  acts  of  the  year  1908,  relative  to  the  licensing  of  public  entertain- 
ments apply,  shall  have  all  the  ways  of  egress  from  such  building 
sufficiently  lighted,  and  lighted  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  the  building 
commissioner,  while  the  hall  or  assembly  room  is  occupied  by  an 
audience. 

Moving   Picture   Shows. 

Sect.  106.  All  moving  picture  shows  shall  be  subject  to  the  pro- 
visions of  chapter  176  and  of  chapter  437  of  the  acts  of  the  year  1905, 


264  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

and  of  any  amendments  thereof  or  additions  thereto  now  or  hereafter 
made. 

Exits,  Etc. 
Sect.  107.  Every  building  hereafter  erected  containing  a  hall  or 
assembly-room  shall  conform  to  all  the  aforesaid  requirements  as  to 
exits,  stairways,  exit  lights,  aisles,  and  seats,  which  apply  to  theatres; 
provided,  that  the  same  are  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  public 
safety  and  are  specially  ordered  by  the  building  commissioner.  All 
orders  of  the  building  commissioner  under  the  provisions  of  this  sec- 
tion shall  be  subject  to  the  authority  of  a  majority  of  the  Board  of 
Appeal,  which  may  annul  or  modify  such  orders. 

Roof  Gardens. 
Sect.  108.  Nothing  herein  contained  shall  prevent  the  placing  of  a 
roof  garden,  art  gallery,  or  rooms  for  similar  purposes  above  a  theatre, 
provided  the  floor  of  the  same  forming  the  roof  over  such  theatre  shall 
be  constructed  of  fireproof  materials,  and  shall  have  no  covering  boards 
or  sleepers  of  wood.  Every  roof  over  such  garden  or  other  rooms 
shall  have  all  supports  and  rafters  of  steel,  and,  if  covered,  shall  be 
covered  with  glass  or  fireproof  material,  or  both. 

Exits  from  Roof  Gardens. 
Sect.  109.     Exits    from   roof   gardens   may   communicate    with    stairs 
leading  from  the  auditorium  of  the  theatre,  but  they  shall  be  at  least 
4  in  number,  not  less  than  4  feet  6  inches  wide,  and  distinct  and  separate 
from  each  other   from  roof  to  street. 

Summer  Theatres. 

Sect.  110.  Summer  theatres,  if  built  without  the  building  limits, 
and  located  30  feet  distant  from  any  other  building  or  structure  or 
adjoining  lot  lines,  and  of  no  greater  seating  capacity  than  750  persons, 
and  not  more  than  1  story  high,  without  balconies  or  galleries,  may 
be  constructed  as  follows : 

The  auditorium,  without  a  cellar  or  basement,  with  open  sides  of 
double  the  number  of  exits  as  hereinbefore  provided,  opening  directly 
into  the  surrounding  courts  or  gardens  at  the  grade  level,  and  the 
adjoining  dressing-rooms,  may  be  of  wooden  construction,  but  the  stage 
shall  be  inclosed  in  brick  walls  not  less  than  12  inches  thick,  or  shall 
be  plastered  on  metal  lathing  throughout;  provided,  that  the  openings 
leading  to  the  dressng-rooms  shall  be  provided  with  fire  doors. 

Otherwise,  "all  protective  features  and  arrangements  shall  comply 
with  all  previous  sections  of  this  title. 

Existing  Theatres. 
Sect.  111.    All  stairs  of  theatres  shall  have  throughout  proper  hand- 
rails on  both  sides  firmly  secured  to  walls  or  to  strong  posts  and  balusters. 


APPENDIX  265 

Stairways  12  feet  or  more  wide  shall  have  one  or  more  intermediate  rails 
not  more  than  8  feet  apart  and  properly  supported. 

No  boiler,  furnace,  engine  or  heating  apparatus,  except  steam,  hot 
water  or  hot  air  pipes  or  radiators,  shall  be  located  under  the  auditorium 
nor  under  any  passage  or  stairway  or  exit  of  any  theatre. 

In  every  theatre  shall  be  over  every  exit,  on  the  inside,  and  over  every 
opening  to  a  fire  escape,  on  the  inside,  an  illuminated  sign,  bearing  the 
word  "exit"  or  "fire  escape,"  respectively,  in  letters  not  less  than  4  inches 
high.  An  emergency  arc  light  or  its  equivalent  shall  be  installed  in  the 
auditorium,  which  light  or  lights,  exit  lights,  and  all  lights  in  halls,  corri- 
dors or  any  part  of  the  building  used  by  the  audience,  except  the  general 
auditorium  lighting,  shall  be  fed  independently  of  the  stage  lighting,  and 
shall  be  controlled  only  from  the  lobby  or  other  convenient  place  in  the 
front  of  the  house.  Every  exit  sign  shall  be  kept  illuminated  and  every 
outside  balcony  and  fire  escape  shall  be  kept  well  lighted  during  the  per- 
formance, except  outside  exits  during  a  performance  in  the  daytime  and 
before  sunset. 

The  exits  and  openings  to  fire  escapes  of  all  theatres  shall  open  out- 
ward and  have  fastenings  on  the  inside  only.  They  shall  be  unfastened 
during  every  performance  and  shall  be  so  arranged  that  they  can  easily 
be  opened  from  within.  Plans  showing  the  exits  and  stairways  shall 
be  legibly  printed  so  as  to  occupy  a  full  page  of  every  programme  or 
play-bill. 

No  temporary  seats  or  other  obstructions  shall  be  allowed  in  any 
aisle  or  stairway  of  a  theatre,  and  no  person  shall  remain  in  any  aisle, 
passageway  or  stairway  of  any  such  building  during  any  performance. 

The  proscenium  or  curtain  opening  of  every  theatre  shall  have  a 
fire-resisting  curtain  of  incombustible  material,  reinforced  by  wire 
netting,  or  otherwise  strengthened.  If  of  iron,  or  similar  heavy  mate- 
rial, and  made  to  lower  from  the  top,  it  shall  be  so  arranged  as  to  be 
stopped  securely  at  a  height  of  7  feet  above  the  stage  floor,  the  re- 
maining opening  being  closed  by  a  curtain  or  valance  or  fire-resisting 
fabric.  The  curtain  shall  be  raised  at  the  beginning  and  lowered  at 
the  end  of  every  performance,  and  shall  be  of  proper  material,  con- 
struction and  mechanism. 

There  shall  be  one  or  more  ventilators  near  the  centre  and  above 
the  highest  part  of  the  stage  of  every  theatre,  of  a  combined  area  of 
opening  satisfactory  to  the  building  commissioner,  and  not  less  than 
1-10  of  the  area  of  the  proscenium  opening.  Every  such  ventilator 
shall  have  a  valve  or  louvre  so  counterbalanced  as  to  open  automati- 
cally, and  shall  be  kept  closed,  when  not  in  use,  by  a  fusible  link  and 
cord  reaching  to  the  prompter's  desk,  or  any  other  place  easily  reached 
from  the  stage  level  and  readily  operated  therefrom.     Such  cord  shall 


266  MODERN  THEATRE  CONSTRUCTION 

be  of  combustible  material,  and  so  arranged  that  if  it  is   severed  the 
ventilator  will  open  automatically. 

There  shall  be  at  least  two  2-inch  high-service  standpipes  on  the 
stage  of  every  theatre,  with  ample  provisions  of  hose  nozzles  at  each 
level  of  the  stage  on  each  side,  and  the  water  shall  be  kept  turned  on 
during  the  occupation  of  the  building  by  an  audience.  The  said  pipes 
shall  in  no  case  be  sealed  and  shall  have  a  gate  and  check  valve  and 
shall  have  a  test  valve  placed  between  the  gate  valve  and  check  valve. 
The  proscenium  opening  of  every  theatre  shall  be  provided  with  a 
2^-inch  perforated  iron  pipe  or  equivalent  equipment  of  automatic  or 
open  sprinklers,  as  the  commissioner  may  direct,  so  constructed  as  to 
form  when  in  operation  a  complete  water  curtain  for  the  whole  pros- 
cenium opening,  and  there  shall  be  for  the  rest  of  the  stage  a  complete 
system  of  fire  apparatus  and  perforated  iron  pipes  automatic  or  open 
sprinklers.  Such  pipes  or  sprinklers  shall  be  supplied  with  water  by 
high-pressure  service,  and  shall  be  ready  for  use  at  all  times. 


Index  to  Contents 

A  Brief  History  of  the  Theatre 9 

Controlling  Elements 29 

Site   Selection    43 

Designing  and  Planning 49 

The  Stage  Section 69 

Lighting 83 

Motion  Picture  Theatres 95 

Safety 117 

Comfort 135 

Heating  and  Ventilation 142 

Acoustics   .• 161 

Construction    169 

Examples  of  Theatre  Architecture 187 

Appendix    ,. 225 


267 


List  of  Illustrations 

Frontispiece— Ruins  Ancient  Dionysius  Theatre  near  Athens 

Evolution  of  Theatre— Comparative  Plans  of  Two  Ancient  Types. .  vii 

Evolution  of  Theatre— Comparative  Plans  of  Two  Modern  Types. .  viii 

Main  Floor  and  Balcony  Plans  Lyceum  Theatre,  London 20 

Model  Safety  Plans  for  Theatres 21 

Nollendorf  Theatre,  Berlin 27 

Open  Air  Greek  Theatre  of  California  University 28 

Interior  View  of  Neighborhood  Playhouse,  New  York  City 42 

View  of  Model  Neighborhood  Theatre 47 

Longitudinal  Section  Model  Neighborhood  Theatre 48 

Sight  Lines  and  Main  Floor  Slopes 68 

The  Revolving  Stage 72 

Brandt's  Reform  Stage  with  Three  Movable  Platforms 73 

Grand  Entrance  Stairways,  German  Theatre,  Vienna 80 

Asphalia  Stage  and  Fortuny  System  Indirect  Lighting .  ? 82 

Interior  View  of  Rialto  Theatre,  New  York  City 93 

Model  Small  Photoplayhouse,  Egyptian  Design  94 

Longitudinal  Section  of  Model  Photoplayhouse  (Egyptian) 115 

Main  Floor  Plan  of  Model  Photoplayhouse  (Egyptian)    115 

Longitudinal  Section  of  Model  Photoplayhouse  with  Lobby  under 

Rear  Seats  . . . : ; 116 

Model  Orchestra  Well  at  Wagner  Opera  House,  Bayreuth 133 

View  of  Model  Small  Photoplayhouse. ... 134 

Model  Plan  of  Schauspielhaus,  Stuttgart,  Germany 141 

Longitudinal  Section  of  Heating  Diagram 145 

Diagram  of  Plenum  Chamber 156 

Photographs  of  Sounds  in  the  New  Theatre,  New  Yofk  City 160 

Interior  View  Little  Theatre,  New  York  City 167 

Examples  of  Steel  Balcony  and  Roof  Trussing 168 

Unique  Application  of  Cantilever  Principle 186 

Exterior  View  New  York  Hippodrome 188 

Interior  View  of  Hippodrome 189 

Longitudinal  Section  of  Model  Grand  Central  Theatre 194 

Combination  Floor  Plans  of  Model  Grand  Central  Theatre 195 

View  of  Scala  Theatre,  London,  England 202 

Another  View  Scala  Theatre 203 

Main  Floor  Plan  of  Model  Neighborhood  Theatre 206 

Balcony  Floor  Plan  of  Model  Neighborhood  Theatre 207 

Longitudinal  Section  Small  Model  Photoplayhouse :  214 

Basement  Plan  Small  Model  Photoplayhouse 215 

Combination  Floor  Plan  Small  Model  Photoplayhouse 215 

Exterior  Little  Theatre,  New  Yoik  City 220 

Floor  Plan  Little  Theatre 222 

Section  of  Little  Theatre ....  223 

268 


A  Card  from  the  Author 

The  writer  of  this  book,  a  widely  traveled  and  experienced  theatre 
specialist,  is  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Motion  Picture  Engineers  and 
a  firm  believer  in  the  essential  doctrine  advocated  by  that  body,  that  the 
advancement,  of  motion  picture  engineering  and  its  allied  arts  and 
sciences  requires  for  complete  efficiency  and  economy  a  standardization 
of  the  mechanism  and  practices  employed  therein,  such  as  safer  ma- 
chine booths,  flatter  projection  and  the  remedying  of  similar  technical 
defects  that  exist  as  the  result  of  blind  imitation  in  the  absence  of  expert 
knowledge. 

The  writer  also  believes  that  architectural  elegance  and  structural 
economy  in  theater  construction  depend  upon  the  individuality  and  sim- 
plicity of  design ;  and  that  the  safety  of  the  structure  and  its  inmates  are 
secured  at  a  minor  increase  in  the  cost  of  construction  by  the  entire 
employment  of  cheap,  recognized  fire-resisting  materials  and  sane  regu- 
lations. 

In  a  humble  effort  for  artistic  and  practical  improvement  the  writer 
volunteers  to  prepare  and  execute  for  prospective  patrons  who  contem- 
plate the  erection  of  a  photoplay  house  a  complete  set  of  one-eighth  scale 
preliminary  plans  of  individual  and  characteristic  design  for  one  hundred 
dollars  (barely  the  cost  of  production)  with  a  carefully  tabulated  list  of 
necessary  building  materials,  said  drawings  to  comprise  six  distinct 
plans :  a  front  elevation  or  fagade,  a  side  elevation  and  fagade,  if  the 
building  be  located  on  a  corner;  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  entire  struc- 
ture, a  combination  transverse  section  presenting  a  stage  and  balcony 
view  of  the  auditorium,  a  main  floor  plan  and  a  balcony  plan  indicating 
the  seating  arrangement. 

This  sum  of  one  hundred  dollars  is  to  be  payable  in  two  payments, 
half,  or  fifty  dollars,  in  advance  as  a  retainer,  and  the  balance  of  fifty 
dollars  upon  delivery  of  the  drawings.  Where  the  proposed  house  is  of 
the  smaller  type  without  balcony,  requiring  two  plans  less,  the  charge 
will  be  but  seventy-five  dollars,  half  payable  in  advance  and  the  re- 
maining half  upon  delivery.  A  general  description  and  a  topographical 
survey  of  the  site  will  be  necessary  before  plans  can  be  drawn. 

These  plans  will  clearly  show  the  size  and  character  of  the  proposed 
building,  and  are  amply  sufficient  with  the  building  material  list  fur- 
nished with  them  for  securing  accurate  estimates  for  builders'  bids. 

Sincerely, 
EDWARD  BERNARD  KINSILA, 
39-41  West  Twenty-seventh  Street, 
New  York  City. 


269 


14  DAY  nsp 

R£i  LOAN  DEPT 

ect  to  immediate  recall. 




c'*    JUN     8  7981 


1!       JAW  2  2  7968 


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JUN  22  1^73      SECciT^TTir 


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(H241si0)476B 


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(D3279S10)476B 


'/nlfpnefal  Library 


General  Library 


3  e '7  327. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


%  * 


